The 

NewCentury 

Bible 


Thessalonians 
Galatians 


MAR  20  1908 


Division  j  t\<=\ 

Section 


The  following  thirteen  volumes,  comprising  the  whole 
New  Testament,  have  already  been  arranged  for. 

i.  MATTHEW,  by  Prof.  W.  F.  Slater,  M.A. 

2.  MARK,  by  Principal  Salmond,  D.D. 

3.  LUKE,  by  Prof.  W.  F.  Adeney,  M.A. 

4.  JOHN,  by  the  Rev.  J.  A.  McCLYMONT,  D.D. 

5.  ACTS,  by  Prof.  J.  Vernon  Bartlet,  M.A. 

6.  ROMANS,  by  the  Rev.  A.  E.  Garvie,  M.A.,  B.D. 

7.  I  and  II  CORINTHIANS,  by  Prof.  J.  Massie,  M.A.,  D.D. 
3.  EPHESIANS,  COLOSSIANS,  PHILEMON,  PHILIP- 

PIANS,  by  the  Rev.  G.  Currie  Martin,  M.A.,  B.D. 
9.  I  and  II  THESSALONIANS,  GALATIANS,  by  Prof. 
W.  F.  Adeney,  M.A. 

10.  THE    PASTORAL    EPISTLES,    by   the   Rev.    R.   F 

HORTON,  M.A.,  D.D. 

11.  HEBREWS,  by  Prof.  A.  S.  Peake,  M.A. 

12.  THE  GENERAL  EPISTLES, by  Prof.W. H.Bennett, 

M.A. 

13.  REVELATION,  by  the   Rev.  C.  Anderson    Scott, 

M.A. 


General  Editor  :  Prof.  \V.  F.  Adeney 

£fk00afonian0 

INTRODUCTION 

AUTHORIZED   VERSION 

REVISED   VERSION    WITH    NOTES 

INDEX    AND     MAP 

EDITED.  BY 

WALTER  F.  ADENEY,  M.A. 

PROFESSOR  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   EXEGESIS,   NEW  COLLEGE,    LONDON 

AUTHOR   OF    'HOW   TO   READ  THE   BIBLE,'   &C,    AND 

JOINT  AUTHOR  OF   'BIBLICAL  INTRODUCTION  ' 


NEW  YORK:  HENRY  FROWDE 

OXFORD    UNIVERSITY    PRESS,    AMERICAN    BRANCH 

EDINBURGH  :   T.  C.  &  E.  C.  JACK 


The  Revised  Version  is  printed  by  permission  of  ike 
Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 


THE  NEW-CENTURY  BIBLE 
THESSALONIANS 

AND 

GALATIANS 


Uw  idmbnrgli  G«otfr«piiicAl  Tuatitai 


7 


ASIA  MOTOR  &  GHEECS 

SHOWING  THE  JOURNEYS  OF  ST  PAUL 

English   Miles 


C°E3«igte-J<i3i.BartKo"UmCTr&  c 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Editor's  Introduction i 

Text  of  the  Authorized  Version        ....  131 

Text  of  the  Revised  Version  with  Annotations      .  155 

Index 34° 

MAP 

Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  shewing  the  journeys  of 

St.  Paul Facing  Title 


THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 

TO  THE 

THESSALONIANS 

AND 

GALATIANS 

INTRODUCTION 


THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 


THESSALONIANS  and  GALATIANS 


INTRODUCTION 

The  Two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians. 

These  two  short  letters  are  closely  associated  together, 
not  merely  because  they  were  both  addressed  to  the  same 
church,  but  also  because  there  was  but  a  short  interval 
of  time  between  them,  and  because  they  deal  with  much 
the  same  subjects  and  have  certain  features  in  common 
that  mark  them  off  from  the  other  writings  of  Paul. 
They  form  a  group  by  themselves,  both  chronologically 
and  in  character  and  teaching.  There  is  good  reason 
to  think  that  they  are  the  earliest  of  the  Apostle's  writings, 
or  at  all  events  the  earliest  that  have  survived,  though 
there  are  students  of  the  New  Testament  who  would  give 
the  priority  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  If  they  come 
first  among  Paul's  writings,  we  must  conclude  that,  with 
the  doubtful  exception  of  the  Epistle  of  James,  they  are  the 
oldest  books  of  the  New  Testament.  With  that  one  pos- 
sible exception,  it  would  seem  that  the  great  Apostle  had 
written  all  his  epistles  before  any  other  books  of  the  New 
Testament  were  composed.  The  next  writer  whose  work 
has  been  included  in  the  Christian  Canon  is  Mark,  the 
author  of  our  second  gospel,  and  he  comes  nearly  twenty 
years  after  the  Thessalonian  Epistles.  Here,  then,  we 
B  2 


4  THESSALONIANS 

have  the  oldest  but  one,  perhaps  the  very  oldest,  docu- 
ments of  Christianity.  Simple  as  they  are  in  thought 
and  style  when  compared  with  Paul's  later  Epistles,  they 
must  have  a  peculiar  value  to  us  on  account  of  their 
extremely  primitive  position  in  the  history  of  Christian 
literature.  One  objection  to  the  early  date  of  the  Epistle 
of  James  is  that  if  that  book  is  placed  before  the  first  of 
Paul's  Epistles,  its  conservative  Jewish  author  must  be 
credited  with  the  invention  of  a  new  style  of  literature — 
that  which  conveys  religious  instruction  in  the  form  of 
a  letter.  But  whether  this  be  the  case  or  not,  nobody 
will  suppose  that  Paul  borrowed  his  method  from  James. 
He  was  far  too  bold  and  original  to  need  guidance  as  to 
his  procedure ;  and  certainly,  if  he  had  felt  any  such 
need,  the  very  last  person  whom  he  would  have  imitated 
was  the  head  of  the  Jerusalem  church.  As  far  as  he 
was  concerned,  then,  we  must  allow  that  the  Apostle 
struck  out  for  himself  the  idea  of  communicating  religious 
teaching  by  means  of  letters.  Nevertheless,  though  this 
was  a  novel  form  of  literature  when  it  appeared,  there 
is  nothing  surprising  about  it.  In  this,  as  in  so  many 
other  cases,  necessity  was  the  mother  of  invention.  Paul 
was  in  the  novel  position  of  a  religious  leader  called  upon 
to  direct  his  disciples  from  a  distance.  The  letter  was 
the  natural  means  by  which  to  carry  on  that  work. 
There  is  nothing  artificial  about  this  epistolary  form  of 
the  Apostle's  writings.  We  cannot  compare  it  with  such 
works  as  The  Letters  of  Junius ■,  the  appearance  of  which 
as  a  collection  of  letters  is  a  mere  literary  device.  These 
Epistles  of  Paul  are  real  letters,  and  can  better  be  com- 
pared with  Cyprian's  letters  to  his  church  at  Carthage 
written  from  his  retirement  in  the  desert.  They  were 
actually  sent  by  the  Apostle  to  his  correspondents  as 
the  best  means  he  had  of  communicating  with  them. 
If  he  could  have  visited  them  at  the  time,  undoubtedly  he 
would  have  dispensed  with  writing,  preferring  the  word 
of  mouth  communication  of  personal  presence.     In  that 


INTRODUCTION  5 

case,  though  two  or  three  churches  might  have  gained, 
the  world  and  all  subsequent  ages  would  have  been  great 
losers,  for  we  should  have  had  no  Epistles  of  Paul.  The 
last  thing  the  Apostle  dreamed  of  in  writing  these  letters 
was  the  composition  of  permanent  literature  that  would 
be  treasured  up  for  all  time  and  circulated  throughout 
the  world.  He  wrote  to  the  occasion  for  his  immediate 
readers  in  the  church  addressed.  This  fact  will  account 
for  much  of  the  obscurity  that  some  people  complain  of 
when  reading  his  epistles.  This  is  why  they  need  com- 
mentaries. Even  with  the  best  collateral  information 
to  guide  us,  we  occasionally  stumble  on  obscurities  which 
are  simply  due  to  the  fact  that  we  do  not  possess  the 
historical  key  that  was  in  the  hands  of  the  readers  to 
whom  the  letters  were  addressed.  What  is  difficult 
to  us  may  have  been  quite  simple  and  easy  to  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  must  not  forget  that  Paul  was 
supremely  concerned  with  eternal  truths.  Therefore 
his  letters,  though  written  for  an  immediate  purpose, 
remain  of  permanent  value  for  the  church  in  all  ages. 
These  letters  deal  with  religion,  because  to  Paul  religion 
was  the  one  supremely  important  thing  in  the  world; 
and  their  treatment  of  the  great  theme  is  deserving  of 
constant  attention,  because  their  author  was  one  of  the 
two  or  three  most  inspired  teachers  of  religion  the  world 
has  ever  seen.  The  letter  form  bears  the  stamp  of  the  local 
and  temporary  on  its  surface ;  the  underlying  substance 
contains  the  essence  of  the  spiritual  and  eternal. 


Thessalonica. 

The  city  of  Thessalonica— represented  by  the  modern 
Saloniki — was  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Thermaic  gulf 
to  the  north  of  the  ./Egean  Sea.  It  was  the  capital  of 
one  of  the  divisions  of  the  Roman  province  of  Macedonia. 
Accordingly  Paul,  who  always  uses  the  Roman  political 


6  THESSALONIANS 

names  for  the  places  he  refers  to,  describes  the  Thessa- 
lonians  as  well  as  the  Philippians  as  '  Macedonians,'  or 
'the  churches  of  Macedonia'  (2  Cor.  viii.  1).  There 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  he  ever  penetrated  to  the 
region  of  the  original  kingdom  of  Macedon.  In  race, 
these  people  of  Thessalonica  were  not  Macedonian, 
but  Thracian,  the  natives  of  ancient  Thrace,  though  with 
a  considerable  mixture  of  Celtic  blood.  They  were  very 
different  in  character  from  the  quick-witted,  lively,  dis- 
solute Greeks  whom  Paul  met  with  in  Athens  and  Corinth. 
Renan  says  of  this  district:  'It  was  probably  the  region 
the  most  honest,  the  most  serious,  the  most  pious  of  the 
ancient  world.'  It  is  noteworthy  that  Paul  found  his 
most  devoted  followers  among  these  solid,  reliable 
Thracians.  He  was  grievously  tried  with  the  moral 
failings  of  his  Greek  converts  and  with  the  doctrinal 
errors  of  his  churches  in  Asia.  But  he  had  no  serious 
complaints  on  either  of  these  grounds  to  make  against 
his  Thracian  friends  in  Philippi  and  Thessalonica,  whom 
he  always  found  to  be  loyal  followers,  stanch  supporters, 
generous  and  affectionate  helpers. 

Under  the  Romans  Thessalonica  had  become  a  port 
of  some  consequence  in  the  trade  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  it  had  grown  into  a  wealthy  and  populous  city. 
It  was  the  greatest  city  in  the  north-east  of  the  Roman 
Empire  before  the  rise  of  Constantinople.  This  fact  adds 
some  importance  to  our  two  small,  simple  epistles.  They 
were  directed  to  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  the  world's 
life.  Paul  always  aimed  at  these  metropolitan  centres, 
and  therefore  was  most  eager  to  bear  his  testimony  in 
the  imperial  city  of  Rome  itself.  The  Jews,  who  had  a 
keen  eye  for  promising  marts  of  commerce,  had  flocked 
to  Thessalonica  in  considerable  numbers,  and  had  built 
a  fine  synagogue,  which  served  also  for  the  neighbouring 
towns  of  Philippi,  Amphipolis,  and  Apollonia.  But  Paul 
drew  few,  if  any,  adherents  from  among  the  rich  and 
important  citizens.     There  was  a  numerous  artisan  class 


INTRODUCTION  7 

gathered  in  this  busy  city;  the  weaving  industry  was 
largely  followed  there,  and  many  men  must  have  been 
engaged  on  the  quays  in  connexion  with  the  shipping. 
It  was  among  these  working  people  that  most  of  the 
disciples  of  the  new  faith  were  won. 

The  Apostle  Paul  visited  Thessalonica  on  the  occasion 
of  his  first  journey  in  Europe,  accompanied  by  Silas  and 
Timothy.  Luke  had  crossed  over  from  Troas  with  them, 
and  the  three  travellers,  after  touching  at  Samothrace,  had 
landed  at  Neapolis  and  proceeded  thence  to  the  Roman 
colony  of  Philippi.  Here  Paul  planted  his  first  church 
on  European  soil ;  it  was  always  his  most  affectionate 
and  devoted  church,  and  apparently  the  one  he  loved 
most.  But  the  persecution  he  received  at  Philippi, 
although  the  magistrates  were  compelled  to  apologize 
for  their  illegality  in  scourging  him,  a  Roman  citizen, 
seems  to  have  hastened  his  departure,  probably  so  as  to 
avoid  occasioning  fresh  disturbances,  which  would  have 
been  a  trouble  and  a  danger  to  the  new  converts.  Leav- 
ing Luke  behind,  perhaps  because  his  home  was  in  this 
city,  Paul  then  proceeded  with  his  two  other  companions 
along  the  famous  Via  Egnatia,  among  the  dales  and  rocks 
and  by  the  winding  river  of  the  beautiful  pass  of  Arethusa, 
to  Thessalonica.  Thus  the  church  he  founded  there  was 
the  second  oldest  of  his  European  churches.  Being  a 
Jew,  and  longing  for  the  salvation  of  his  people,  Paul 
followed  his  custom  and  made  the  first  offer  of  the  gospel 
to  the  Jews,  visiting  their  great  synagogue  on  three 
successive  Sabbaths,  and  there  delivering  his  message. 
His  method  was  to  reason  from  the  Scriptures  in  order  to 
prove  that  'it  behoved  the  Christ  to  suffer  and  to  rise 
again  from  the  dead.'  Then  he  would  apply  the  result 
of  his  argument  and  shew  that  Jesus,  whom  he  must 
have  described,  since  the  historian  says  i  this  Jesus' 
(Acts  xvii.  3),  was  the  predicted  Christ.  The  brief 
epitome  of  Paul's  preaching  at  Thessalonica  in  Acts  sheds 
an  interesting  light   on  his  method  of  evangelizing  his 


8  THESSALONIANS 

own  people.  The  main  objection  to  the  claim  of  Jesus 
to  be  the  Messiah  was  that  his  life  was  not  at  all  like 
what  had  been  expected  of  the  Mighty  Deliverer  of 
Israel,  while  his  death  had  only  completed  the  incon- 
gruity. Accordingly  a  completely  new  idea  of  the  Mes- 
sianic character  and  mission  must  be  accepted  if  the 
crucified  peasant  from  Galilee  could  be  regarded  as 
the  long-expected  Christ.  This  necessity  controlled 
all  the  gospel  preaching  among  the  Jews.  We  see  it  in 
Peter's  speeches  at  Jerusalem.  It  appears  much  later 
in  Justin  Martyr's  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  for  Trypho 
was  a  Jew.  Here  we  find  Paul  endeavouring  to  break 
through  the  thick  wall  of  prejudice  by  demonstrating 
from  the  Jewish  Scriptures  themselves  that  the  coming 
of  a  suffering  Messiah  was  really  quite  in  accordance 
with  the  prophecies  contained  in  those  venerated  books. 
But  while  the  Jewish  objections  compelled  Paul  to  treat 
this  subject,  we  know  from  his  weighty  words  about  it 
when  writing  to  his  own  converts  that  even  apart  from 
those  objections  he  would  have  made  much  of  it,  because 
it  was  central  to  his  conception  of  Christianity.  'With 
Paul  the  gospel  was  rooted  in  the  person  of  Christ,  and 
the  chief  significance  of  the  person  of  Christ  was  seen  in 
his  death  and  resurrection.  This,  then,  was  always  found 
to  be  the  substance  and  core  of  the  Apostle's  message. 

The  results  of  Paul's  preaching  at  Thessalonica  were 
very  promising.  Converts  of  various  classes  began  to 
declare  themselves  for  the  new  faith.  Luke  mentions 
three  classes  : — (i)  Some  of  the  Jews.  These  could  only 
have  been  few  in  number,  for  it  is  manifest  that  the  church 
of  the  Thessalonians  was  mostly  Gentile.  Still,  it  is 
something  to  know  that  even  in  Thessalonica,  where 
Paul  was  to  meet  with  the  most  violent  opposition  from 
his  own  countrymen,  some  of  them  were  won.  That 
argument  from  the  Scriptures  had  told  on  the  more 
open-minded  or  susceptible  Jews  in  the  synagogue. 
(2)  Proselytes.     These  are  called  'devout  Greeks.'     We 


INTRODUCTION  9 

must  not  understand  the  phrase  to  mean  Greeks  who 
were  pious  according  to  their  own  j pagan  light,  worship- 
ping their  national  divinities,  like  Socrates  or  Marcus 
Aurelius.  The  term  is  always  used  in  Scripture  for 
those  who  had  accepted  the  Jewish  faith  with  more 
or  less  thoroughness,  even  if  they  had  not  actually 
become  Jews  by  undergoing  the  rite  of  circumcision. 
A  very  considerable  proportion  of  the  early  Christians 
was  drawn  from  people  of  this  class.  They  were 
religious  in  sympathy  and  intention  to  begin  with,  or 
they  would  not  be  found  worshipping  in  the  synagogue ; 
they  were  in  a  measure  prepared  for  the  new  revelation 
by  their  reception  of  the  older  revelation  which  pointed 
towards  it  and  led  up  to  it,  in  spite  of  the  denial  of  this 
by  the  prejudice  and  bigotry  of  the  Jews  ;  and  they  were 
more  ready  to  listen  to  reason  than  the  Jews,  having 
already  moved  one  step  towards  the  light  out  of  their 
native  pagan  darkness.  (3)  Women  of  position — '  chief 
women,'  Luke  calls  them.  The  poorer  women  in  their 
benighted  ignorance  would  be  the  blindest,  most  in- 
fatuated devotees  of  the  old  local  Thracian  heathenism. 
But  many  women  of  the  upper  classes  throughout  the 
Roman  Empire  at  this  time  were  shewing  a  keen  interest 
in  questions  of  religion.  At  Rome,  at  Alexandria,  at 
Damascus,  women  in  high  social  position  had  adopted 
Judaism.  The  motives  which  led  some  to  do  this  in 
their  search  for  a  deeper  religion  than  the  pagan  cults  in 
which  they  had  been  brought  up  would  induce  others  to 
accept  the  Christian  teaching.  It  would  be  these  well- 
to-do  women  in  the  church  who  came  to  make  up  the 
bulk  of  the  contributions  that  were  subsequently  sent 
by  the  Macedonian  Christians  to  Paul  when  he  was  "in 
other  places,  as  it  was  by  the  gifts  of  grateful  women 
that  the  temporal  necessities  of  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
disciples  had  been  supplied. 

This  happy  state  of  affairs  was  soon  rudely  disturbed — 
how  soon,  we  do  not  know.    One  objection  that  has  been 


io  THESSALONIANS 

brought  against  our  two  epistles  is  based  on  the  ground 
that  such  a  church  as  they  imply  to  be  existing  in 
Thessalonica  could  not  have  been  constituted  and  have 
received  the  amount  of  teaching  the  epistles  refer  to  all 
within  the  course  of  three  weeks.  But  Luke  does  not 
state  that  Paul's  visit  only  lasted  that  short  time.  He 
says  that  the  Apostle  delivered  his  message  for  three 
Sabbaths  in  the  synagogue  ;  but  he  does  not  say  that 
Paul  remained  no  longer  in  the  city.  As  his  converts 
were  mostly  derived  from  the  pagan  population,  he 
must  have  preached  to  the  Gentiles  after  the  Jews  had 
refused  to  hear  him  any  longer.  Indeed,  the  narrative 
in  Acts  suggests  that  this  was  the  case,  for  it  states 
that  the  Jews  were  'moved  with  jealousy.'  They  would 
not  have  been  so  jealous  of  the  offer  of  the  gospel 
to  their  own  adherents  in  the  synagogue  as  of  the 
fact  that  Paul  was  inviting  Gentiles  to  its  privileges. 
For  anything  we  know,  he  may  have  been  engaged 
in  this  work  during  several  months.  There  is  really 
no  contradiction  between  Acts  and  the  Epistles  here. 
If  there  were  such  a  contradiction  it  would  be  more 
reasonable  to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  Luke's  work,  since  its 
author  was  not  present  at  the  time,  than  to  reject  what 
appears  as  the  well-authenticated  writing  of  the  chief 
actor  in  this  scene. 

Here,  as  in  most  other  places,  the  opposition  to  Paul 
arose  from  the  Jews.  It  had  been  otherwise  at  Philippi, 
where  the  pagan  master  of  a  supposed  Pythoness,  or 
inspired  prophetess,  was  enraged  at  the  loss  of  his  liveli- 
hood by  the  cure  of  the  poor  slave-girl,  and  later  at 
Ephesus,  where  the  silversmiths  feared  loss  of  trade. 
But  these  were  exceptions.  As  a  rule  all  the  early 
persecutions  were  instigated  by  the  Jews.  Even  as  late 
as  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  martyrdom 
of  Polycarp  was  urged  on  by  Jews,  But  while  this 
was  the  origin  of  the  disturbance,  the  Jews  did  not 
care    to    undertake    the    ugly    business    single-handed, 


INTRODUCTION  n 

or  indeed  to  carry  it  through  with  their  own  hands  at 
all.  They  preferred  to  get  more  disreputable  people 
to  do  their  dirty  work  for  them,  and  therefore  they 
roused  the  mob,  always  easily  excited  in  these  Eastern 
seaports,  which  made  for  the  house  of  a  man  named 
Jason,  probably  because  this  house  was  used  by  Paul 
for  his  teaching.  At  all  events  the  Apostle  was  lodg- 
ing there.  Although  the  opposition  began  in  an 
uproar,  the  authority  of  law  and  order  in  a  city  under 
Roman  government  was  too  strong  for  the  mob  to 
proceed  to  lynch-law.  Accordingly,  having  broken  into 
Jason's  house,  and  perhaps  being  disappointed  at  not 
finding  his  lodger  there,  they  carried  the  proprietor  off 
to  the  police  court.  This  was  rather  hard  on  Jason. 
Paul  was  supporting  himself  by  his  own  labour  at  tent 
making,  and  was  not  dependent  on  Jason's  hospitality. 
Possibly  he  was  also  paying  for  his  lodging.  And  now 
the  landlord  is  made  responsible  for  his  tenant's  doings. 
Still,  it  is  likely  that  he  was  a  convert,  and  other  Chris- 
tians found  in  his  house  were  taken  with  him.  It  may 
be  remarked  in  passing  that  the  magistrates  of  Thessa- 
lonica  bore  a  peculiar  name — 'politarch' — which  Luke 
is  careful  to  record,  a  note  of  that  historian's  accuracy. 
The  charge  against  the  Christians  was  a  serious  one 
in  the  eyes  of  Roman  magistrates.  First,  they  were 
accused  of  being  social  revolutionists— '  turning  the 
world ' — literally,  the  '  civilized,  inhabited  world ' — '  upside 
down.'  The  Romans  were  intensely  conservative.  There 
was  nothing  they  suppressed  more  sternly  than  any 
attempt  to  upset  the  order  of  society.  Then  the  Chris- 
tians were  accused  of  rebellion — going  'contrary  to  the 
decrees  of  Caesar ' ;  what  decrees,  we  do  not  know, 
though  probably  the  explanation  is  in  the  final  item 
of  the  charge,  that  of  proclaiming  'another  king,  one 
Jesus ' — rank  treason !  No  crime  could  be  worse  than 
that  in  the  eyes  of  the  emperor.  The  penalty  was 
death.     But    the   lenient   way  in   which    the  politarchs 


12  THESSALONIANS 

dealt  with  the  accused  shews  that  the  case  broke  down. 
In  fact,  they  were  acquitted.  Still,  it  could  not  be  denied 
that  there  had  been  disturbances  in  the  city  arising  out 
of  the  visit  of  the  Christian  missionaries.  To  prevent 
the  repetition  of  such  scenes,  Jason  and  his  friends  were 
bound  over  to  keep  the  peace  and  required  to  give 
security  to  that  effect.  This  was  quite  in  accordance 
with  Roman  law.  It  may  be  compared  to  the  action 
of  some  English  magistrates  in  forbidding  processions  of 
the  Salvation  Army  because  of  the  riots  that  followed, 
although  they  knew  that  the  Salvationists  themselves 
were  not  disturbers  of  the  peace.  Professor  Ramsay 
points  out  that  this  magisterial  order  involved  the  de- 
parture of  Paul  from  the  city,  and  prevented  his  return 
for  some  time.  This  may  explain  the  Apostle's  language 
where  he  says  that  he  would  fain  have  come  to  the 
Thessalonians  once  and  again,  but  Satan  hindered 
him  (i  Thess.  ii.ti8).  The  mischief-making  agency  of 
the  spirit  of  evil  is  credited  with  bringing  about  this 
unhappy  state  of  affairs,  which  effectually  keeps  the 
Apostle  at  a  distance  from  his  Macedonian  friends. 

We  can  gather  some  information  about  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  church  at  Thessalonica  from  a  study 
of  the  two  epistles. 

I.  The  church  consisted  mainly  of  converted  pagans. 
This  is  quite  in  accordance  with  what  we  read  in  Acts. 
In  I  Thessalonians  Paul  reminds  his  readers  how  they 
'  turned  unto  God  from  idols,  to  serve  a  living  and  true 
God'  (i  Thess.  i.  9) ;  and  after  referring  to  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  Christians  in  Judaea,  he  adds,  'for  ye  also 
suffered  the  same  things  of  your  own  countrymen,  even 
as  they  did  of  the  Jews'  (ii.  14),  where  the  distinction 
between  '  your  own  countrymen '  and  '  the  Jews '  shews 
that  the  people  addressed  were  Gentiles.  Then  the  vices 
against  which  the  Apostle  warns  his  readers  were  more 
Greek  and  pagan  than  Jewish,  such  as  immoral  relations 
between  men  and  women  (see  1  Thess.  iv.  1-8),  drunken- 


INTRODUCTION  13 

ness  (v.  7),  indolence  (2  Thess.  iii.  10),  mischievous 
gossiping  (verse  11).  The  licentiousness  of  the  peoples 
of  Hellenic  civilization  was  notorious,  while  the  faults 
of  the  Jews  lay  rather  in  the  direction  of  bigotry,  pride, 
censoriousness,  and  greed  of  money. 

2.  Most  of  the  members  were  of  what  we  call  'the 
working  classes.'  Paul  exhorts  his  converts  to  keep  to 
their  manual  work,  and  not  permit  the  elation  caused 
by  their  enjoyment  of  rare  spiritual  privileges  to  induce 
them  to  become  impatient  of  this  drudgery  or  despise  it. 
They  are  to  study  to  be  quiet,  to  do  their  own  business, 
and  work  with  their  hands  (1  Thess.  iv.  11).  Paul  had 
done  the  same  while  among  them,  and  he  is  careful  to 
remind  them  of  the  fact  in  the  hope  that  his  example  may 
stimulate  the  indolent  and  sober  the  flighty.  We  must 
suppose,  therefore,  that  the  well-to-do  Jewish  converts  and 
the  women  from  a  higher  social  class  formed  but  small 
minorities  in  the  church,  and  that  the  bulk  of  the  brother- 
hood consisted  of  working  people.  This  church  was  not 
troubled  with  any  of  the  refined  subtleties  of  thought 
that  interested  the  more  dreamy,  speculative  Christians 
of  Ephesus  and  the  churches  in  the  Lycus  Valley,  nor 
with  the  ambition  of  intellectuality  in  which  the  Greeks 
of  Achaia  indulged.  The  members  were  simple  folk,  and 
they  took  a  simple  view  of  the  teachings  they  had  received. 

These  facts  need  to  be  borne  in  mind  when  we  are 
considering  the  ideas  of  the  Apostle  contained  in  the 
epistles.  As  the  earliest  of  his  extant  writings,  it  seems 
natural  to  find  them  the  most  elementary.  M.  Sabatier 
has  worked  out  a  very  definite  scheme  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Paul's  mind  and  thought  through  the  course  of 
his  epistles,  beginning  with  these  two.  But  probably  he 
has  gone  too  far.  It  is  true  that  the  Apostle  does  seem 
to  advance  in  some  respects,  especially  in  his  teaching 
about  the  divine  nature  of  Christ  in  Ephesians  and 
Colossians.  No  doubt  the  controversies  with  which 
he  was  engaged  helped  to  clarify  and  accentuate  his 


i4  THESSALONIANS 

leading  convictions.  Thus  the  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith  is  most  fully  expounded  in  Galatians  and 
Romans  after  the  conflict  with  the  Judaizers  in  Galatia ; 
and  the  most  exalted  ideas  of  Christ's  relation  to  the 
universe  are  expressed  in  the  epistles  of  the  Captivity 
in  order  to  counteract  vague  gnostic  and  theosophic 
notions  in  the  churches  addressed.  But  while  this  is 
reasonable  enough,  there  is  another  side  to  the  case.  The 
epistles  do  not  only  express  their  writer's  views  at  the 
moment,  they  are  especially  adapted  to  the  conditions  and 
needs  of  his  correspondents  in  the  special  circumstances 
they  are  designed  to  meet.  This  is  one  important 
distinction  between  real,  living  letters  and  mere  essays 
intended  for  the  reading  of  the  general  public,  and 
perhaps  not  specially  adapted  to  the  particular  state 
of  society  when  they  happen  to  be  published.  Certainly 
it  would  be  unfair  to  assume  that  a  writer  put  all  his 
beliefs  into  every  one  of  his  letters.  We  cannot  say 
that  he  did  not  hold  a  certain  belief  when  writing  any 
particular  letter  just  because  he  did  not  there  and  then 
state  it,  unless  the  subject  treated  in  the  letter  would 
naturally  lead  up  to  it.  If  Paul  writes  to  a  working  man's 
church  not  disturbed  by  any  novelties  or  irregularities 
of  doctrine,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  he  has  not  yet 
thought  out  his  ideas  concerning  certain  abstruse  subjects 
simply  because  he  does  not  see  fit  to  trouble  his  corre- 
spondents with  them.  We  cannot  say  that  when  he 
wrote  the  two  simple  letters  to  the  Thessalonians  his 
mind  had  not  yet  moved  beyond  the  most  elementary 
conceptions  of  Christian  truth.  If,  as  seems  probable, 
he  had  been  engaged  in  mission  work  during  some 
eighteen  years  before  he  wrote  these  epistles,  he  was  no 
novice  at  the  time,  but  an  Apostle  of  wide  and  long- 
continued  experience  in  Christian  life,  thought,  and 
teaching.  Here  we  have  the  utterances  of  a  ripe  mind, 
although  the  circumstances  do  not  call  for  the  exposition 
of  the  most  profound  ideas. 


INTRODUCTION  15 

Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  the  two 
epistles,  a  glance  may  be  permitted  at  the  subsequent 
history  of  the  church.  The  Apostle  who  was  so  longing 
to  revisit  his  friends,  but  was  prevented  from  doing  so 
at  the  time  when  he  wrote,  was  able  to  carry  out  his 
wish  three  or  four  years  later.  After  his  year  and  a  half 
at  Corinth,  Paul  returned  to  Jerusalem  and  Antioch 
without  going  to  see  his  friends  in  Macedonia.  His 
second  missionary  tour  took  him  through  Galatia  and 
other  parts  of  Asia  Minor  to  Ephesus,  where  he  remained 
two  and  a  half  years.  After  the  riot  he  went  north  to 
Troas  and  thence  across  to  Europe,  as  on  his  previous 
journey  in  this  direction.  Thus  at  length,  after  so  long 
an  interval,  he  once  more  found  himself  among  his 
favourite  disciples,  the  Macedonians.  There  he  was 
much  cheered  by  the  good  news  brought  him  by  Titus 
concerning  the  improved  condition  of  affairs  in  Corinth, 
about  which  Christian  centre  he  had  been  feeling 
considerable  anxiety.  At  this  time  he  was  engaged  in 
collecting  the  offerings  of  his  churches  for  the  poor 
Christians  at  Jerusalem,  a  work  into  which  he  threw 
himself  heartily  as  a  means  of  reconciling  the  two  great 
sections  of  the  church — the  Gentile  and  the  Jewish. 
He  met  with  the  greatest  possible  encouragement  from 
his  Macedonian  friends,  whose  generosity,  in  spite  of 
their  poverty,  was  astonishing,  so  that  he  made  much 
of  it  in  writing  to  Corinth.  Philippi  seems  to  have 
taken  the  lead  in  giving— as  it  had  done  earlier  in 
sending  more  than  once  to  the  support  of  the  Apostle 
during  his  first  missionary  visit  to  Thessalonica.  But 
it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  church  in  the  great 
Macedonian  metropolis  was  backward  with  regard  to 
the  generous  work.  Thus  Paul  was  able  to  go  on  south 
to  Achaia  with  a  good  harvest  of  contribution  gathered 
in  Macedonia.  After  going  to  Corinth,  Paul  returned 
through  Macedonia,  and  then  no  doubt  revisited  Thessa- 
lonica.   Another  interval  of  three  or  four  years  passes, 


1 6  THESSALONIANS 

and  Paul  is  a  prisoner  at  Rome.  Writing  to  his  friends 
at  Philippi,  he  tells  them  that  he  expects  to  be  with  them 
before  long  (Phil.  ii.  24).  If  the  tradition  that  he  was 
liberated  from  this  first  imprisonment  at  Rome  is  correct, 
when  visiting  the  Philippians  we  may  be  pretty  sure  that 
he  would  go  also  to  see  his  Macedonian  friends  in  the 
neighbouring  city  of  Thessalonica.  In  1  Tim.  i.  3 — if 
we  may  accept  this  as  a  genuine  piece  of  the  Apostle's 
writing— Paul  refers  to  yet  another  visit  he  had  paid 
to  Macedonia  while  Timothy  was  left  at  Ephesus.  After 
this,  Macedonia,  and  with  it  the  chief  town,  Thessalonica, 
fade  out  of  the  New  Testament  history,  to  reappear 
in  the  later  history  of  the  church  and  the  Empire. 
For  three  centuries  Thessalonica  was  the  principal 
city  in  Greece.  It  obtained  a  terrible  notoriety  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  as  the  scene  of  a  frightful  mas- 
sacre. Enraged  with  the  citizens  for  their  murder  of 
the  governor  of  the  garrison — who  had  offended  them 
by  imprisoning  a  favourite  charioteer  of  the  games  for 
a  gross  offence— the  emperor  issued  a  savage  order. 
Evil  counsellors  had  made  the  worst  of  the  case  and 
roused  his  Spanish  blood.  The  citizens  were  invited 
to  a  fresh  exhibition  of  the  games,  and  while  they  were 
assembled  in  the  amphitheatre  the  soldiers  rushed  in 
and  slaughtered  them  indiscriminately,  men,  women, 
and  children,  to  the  number  of  7,000.  For  this  crime 
St.  Ambrose  refused  to  admit  Theodosius  to  the  church 
at  Milan,  or  even  to  see  him,  till  he  had  given  signs 
of  penitence  and  humiliation.  During  the  barbarian 
invasions  the  city  was  the  bulwark  of  the  Eastern 
empire,  the  guardian  of  Eastern  Christendom  against 
wave  after  wave  of  heathen  and  Mohammedan  assaults. 
It  was  taken  three  times  during  the  Middle  Ages,  by  the 
Saracens  in  904,  by  the  Sicilian  Normans  in  1185,  by 
the  Turks  in  1430.  Under  the  name  of  Saloniki  it 
is  now  a  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 


I    THESSALONIANS 


Genuineness. 

This  is  one  of  the  New  Testament  books  that  have 
gained  ground  in  the  estimation  of  critics  during  the  last 
fifty  years  until  their  position  may  be  reckoned  established 
and  virtually  unassailable.  It  was  rejected  by  Baur,  in 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  that  critic  only  allowing 
four  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  to  be  authentic — viz.  Galatians, 
Romans,  I  and  2  Corinthians.  But  now  the  Epistle  is 
accepted  by  most  even  of  those  scholars  who  may  be 
said  to  belong  to  the  left-wing  of  criticism.  Thus  on  the 
continent  it  is  acknowledged  by  Pfieiderer  and  Holtz- 
mann,  as  well  as  by  Harnack  and  Jiilicher  who  are 
more  moderate  in  their  views,  and  by  the  conservative 
scholars  Godet  and  Zahn ;  and  in  England  and  America 
it  is  received  by  all  classes  of  New  Testament  students. 
It  was  included  in  Marcion's  Canon  (about  A.  D.  140), 
though  the  earliest  writer  to  quote  it  by  name,  as  far  as 
we  know,  is  Irenaeus  (about  A.  D.  180),  who  says,  'And 
for  this  cause  does  the  apostle,  explaining  himself,  make 
it  clear  that  the  saved  man  is  a  complete  man  as  well 
as  a  spiritual  man;  saying  thus  in  the  first  Epistle  to 
the  Thessalonians,  "  Now  the  God  of  peace  sanctify  you 
perfect  {fierfectos)  ;  and  may  your  spirit,  and  soul,  and 
body  be  preserved  whole  without  complaint  to  the  coming 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  V  ' 

1  Adv.  Hacr.  V.  vi.  1 ;  cf.  1  Thess.  v.  23. 
C 


18  I  THESSALONIANS 

By  the  end  of  the  second  century  we  find  Clement  of 
Alexandria  making  use  of  it l,  and  also  Tertullian  a  little 
later2. 

Further,  the  constructor  of  that  anonymous  canon 
known  as  the  Muratorian  Fragment,  which  may  be 
dated  before  the  end  of  the  second  century,  acknowledged 
the  Epistle  as  Paul's.  It  is  contained  in  the  most  ancient 
versions  of  the  New  Testament,  the  Syriac  in  the  East, 
and  the  Old  Latin  in  North  Africa.  After  this  it  is 
needless  to  cite  the  testimony  of  later  ages.  Clearly 
the  Epistle  was  known  and  recognized  as  Paul's  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  second  century.  The  paucity 
of  earlier  literature  is  quite  enough  to  account  for  its  not 
having  left  still  more  ancient  records  of  its  existence  and 
use  in  the  church. 

Then  the  Epistle  speaks  for  its  own  genuineness.  One 
objection  that  Baur  brought  forward  against  it  was  the 
absence  of  distinctively  Pauline  doctrine.  But  this  fact 
can  better  be  pleaded  as  an  argument  for  the  defence. 
There  is  not  sufficient  motive  for  a  pseudonymous  writer 
to  have  composed  so  simple  and  personal  a  letter  as  this 
and  then  published  it  under  the  name  of  the  great 
Apostle  in  order  to  obtain  acceptance  for  it  in  the  church. 
It  fits  in  well  with  the  circumstances  under  which  it  pro- 
fesses to  be  written.  Its  silence  on  the  controversy  with 
the  Judaizing  Christians,  which  is  so  prominent  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  may  be  explained  by  its  very 
early  date,  before  that  controversy  had  broken  out,  or, 
if  it  had  already  appeared  in  some  quarters,  by  its  not 
having  extended  to  Thessalonica.  Baur  thought  that 
there  was  a  reference  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem — 
which  would  make  the  writing  later  than  the  lifetime  of 
Paul — in  the  sentence,  '  but  the  wrath  is  come  upon  them 
to  the  uttermost '  (ii.  16).  But  the  language  is  too  vague 
to  be  fixed  to   that  event,   and  it   may   be   used  of  the 

1  Paed.  v.  19;  Strom,  i.  9.  53.  2  De  Res.  Cam.,  c.  24. 


INTRODUCTION  19 

preaching  of  judgement l.  Attention  has  already  been 
called  to  the  seeming  inconsistencies  between  this  Epistle 
and  Acts.  Now  if  these  are  as  great  as  some  suppose, 
the  question  rises,  why  should  a  pseudonymous  writer 
of  a  later  date,  who  presumably  knew  Acts,  manufacture 
such  difficulties  for  himself,  having  only  plastic  imagina- 
tions instead  of  stubborn  facts  to  deal  with  ?  Moreover, 
if  these  inconsistencies  are  quite  fatally  irreconcilable 
it  is  Acts  that  must  suffer  in  its  reputation  for  accuracy, 
rather  than  the  Epistle,  since  the  history  does  not  pro- 
fess to  be  written  by  an  eye-witness  at  this  place.  But 
let  us  look  at  these  supposed  differences  a  little  more 
closely.  According  to  Acts,  Paul  left  Timothy  and 
Silas  behind  him  in  Macedonia  when  he  took  his 
hasty  departure  from  Bercea  (Acts  xvii.  14).  From 
Athens  he  sent  back  a  request  that  they  would  join 
him  there  (verse  15).  But  before  they  arrived  he  had 
gone  on  to  Corinth,  where  at  length  these  two  friends 
came  up  with  him  (xviii.  1,  5).  Now  when  we  turn  to  our 
Epistle  we  find  that  Paul  had  sent  Timothy  from  Athens 
to  Thessalonica,  and  that  when  that  attendant  disciple 
joined  the  Apostle  at  Corinth  it  was  on  his  return  from 
this  visit  of  inquiry  at  Thessalonica.  Paul  writes,  '  Where- 
fore when  we  could  no  longer  forbear '— i.  e.,  as  the 
previous  sentence  shews,  when  he  was  chafing  under 
his  own  inability  to  return  to  his  Thessalonian  friends 
because,  as  he  puts  it,  'Satan  hindered'— 'we  thought 
it  good  to  be  left  behind  at  Athens  alone' — 'Athens? 
mark,  not  Corinth — 'And  sent  Timothy'— plainly  from 
Athens — '.  .  .  to  establish  you,'  &c.  (iii.  I,  2).  Clearly 
then  Timothy  was  with  Paul  at  Athens,  unless  we  are 
to  suppose  that  the  Apostle  forgot  that  it  was  not  till 
he  reached  Corinth  that  Timothy  rejoined  him,  and  that 
he  was  in  fact  dispatched  from  the  latter  city  and  not 
from  Athens ;  but  that  is  most  improbable.     We  cannot 

1  See  note  on  the  passage. 
C    2 


20  I  THESSALONIANS 

quite  piece  the  two  accounts  together.  The  simplest 
explanation  is  that  Luke  was  not  fully  informed,  that  he 
did  not  know  of  Timothy's  return  to  Thessalonica,  and 
therefore  concluded  that  his  meeting  with  the  Apostle  at 
Corinth  was  on  the  occasion  of  his  first  visit  to  Achaia, 
whereas  it  really  was  his  second  visit.  Slight  dis- 
crepancies such  as  this  are  met  with  in  nearly  all  separate 
accounts  of  events.  They  do  not  invalidate  the  general 
truthfulness  of  the  narratives.  In  the  present  case  we 
may  suppose  that  what  really  happened  was  this.  Luke 
is  right  in  his  explicit  and  detailed  statement  about  the 
staying  on  of  Silas  and  Timothy  in  Macedonia,  and 
Paul's  desire  to  have  them  with  him  at  Athens  and 
message  to  that  effect.  Then  they  did  actually  reach 
him  while  he  was  in  that  city.  But  the  news  they  brought 
of  the  troubles  of  the  Thessalonians  was  so  disquieting 
that  he  immediately  dispatched  one  of  them,  Timothy, 
back  to  Thessalonica  to  encourage  and  fortify  the  per- 
secuted church.  Then  Paul  moved  on  to  Corinth,  and 
while  there  welcomed  Timothy  back  from  his  special 
mission.     There  is  really  no  serious  difficulty  here. 

The  one  difficulty  of  any  weight  is  to  be  found  in  the 
amount  of  development  in  the  life  of  the  church  and 
the  experience  of  its  members  which  the  Epistle  seems 
to  imply.  We  have  seen  that  probably  Paul  stayed  on 
at  Thessalonica  some  time  after  the  conclusion  of  those 
three  weeks  during  which  he  was  visiting  the  synagogue. 
But  we  cannot  allow  more  than  two  or  three  months 
between  Paul's  leaving  Thessalonica  and  his  writing  this 
letter.  The  explanation  must  be  sought  in  the  recognition 
that  those  were  times  of  wonderful  enthusiasm,  of  rare 
spiritual  power.  It  is  not  our  happy  experience  to  see 
new  churches  planted  and  fostered  by  a  Paul.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  signs  of  a  very  primitive  stage  in 
the  history  of  the  church  addressed.  It  was  a  trouble 
to  the  members  that  some  of  the  brotherhood  had  died 
before  the  coming  of  Christ.     They  had  been  labouring 


INTRODUCTION  21 

under  the  delusion  that  Christ  would  appear  very  soon, 
and  that  then  they  would  enter  into  the  joys  of  the 
kingdom  with  him.  Now  what  would  happen  to  the 
brethren  who  had  died  in  the  interval  ?  would  they  miss 
the  great  privilege  all  were  eagerly  looking  for?  Such 
a  question,  one  that  strikes  us  as  so  quaint  and  remote, 
could  only  have  occurred  very  early  indeed  in  the  history 
of  any  church,  when  the  first  breaches  in  the  family  circle 
were  made  by  the  hand  of  death.  Then  there  is  no 
indication  of  any  elaborate  church  organization,  such  as 
we  meet  with  even  before  the  end  of  the  New  Testament 
times.  We  have  no  mention  of  bishops  and  deacons  as  in 
Philippians  and  the  Pastoral  Epistles.  A  vague  allusion 
to  I  them  that  labour  among  you,  and  are  over  you  in  the 
Lord,  and  admonish  you'  (v.  12,  see  note)  suggests  the 
existence  of  some  church  officers,  possibly  corresponding 
to  the  elders  of  whom  we  read  elsewhere,  though  as  yet 
without  any  title.  How  very  primitive  all  this  is!  Further, 
Paul,  for  his  own  part,  expects  to  be  alive  at  the  coming 
of  Christ.  He  says  '  we  that  are  alive,  that  are  left  unto 
the  coming  of  the  Lord'  (iv.  15).  No  one  claiming  to 
write  as  Paul  would  have  said  that  after  his  death,  and 
so  gratuitously  manufactured  a  delusion. 

Occasion,  Place,  and  Date  of  Origin. 

A  comparison  of  our  Epistle  with  the  narrative  in  Acts 
will  enable  us  to  determine  with  some  exactness  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  was  written.  Silvanus 
and  Timothy,  who  were  Paul's  travelling  companions 
when  he  visited  Thessalonica,  are  with  him  now,  and 
have  a  share  in  the  messages  of  the  Epistle.  The  Apostle 
is  still  on  the  same  missionary  journey.  He  has  been 
to  Athens,  for  he  says  that  he  sent  Timothy  back  to 
Thessalonica  from  that  city  (iii.  1).  He  does  not  say 
in  so  many  words  that  he  has  left  Athens.  But  we 
cannot   suppose  that  the  Epistle  was  dispatched  from 


22  I  THESSALONIANS 

that  city.  Timothy  had  returned  after  his  special  visit 
to  Thessalonica,  and  there  is  some  probability  that  he 
did  not  reach  Paul  till  the  Apostle  had  gone  on  to 
Corinth.  We  have  seen  that  this  is  the  natural  explana- 
tion of  the  statements  in  Acts  (xviii.  I,  5).  Besides, 
a  longer  interval  of  time  is  required  than  the  dispatch 
of  the  letter  from  Athens  would  allow.  Paul  writes  to 
the  Thessalonians,  'ye  became  an  example  to  all  that 
believe  in  Macedonia  and  in  Achaia  (i.  7).  The  inclusion 
of  the  latter  province  shews  that  Paul  had  evangelized 
Achaia  to  some  extent,  and  this  can  hardly  have  been 
the  case  before  he  had  reached  Corinth,  the  capital, 
which  he  made  the  head  quarters  of  his  missionary  work 
in  that  district.  Then  he  adds,  '  For  from  you  hath 
sounded  forth  the  word  of  the  Lord,  not  only  in  Mace- 
donia and  Achaia,  but  in  every  place  your  faith  to 
God-ward  is  gone  forth '  (verse  8).  Now  there  were  no 
other  parts  of  Europe  evangelized — Rome  being  out 
of  the  question.  What  then  does  Paul  mean  by  'every 
place '  ?  He  must  be  referring  to  the  Eastern  churches 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  But  for  the  fame  of  the 
Thessalonian  Christians  to  have  reached  those  remote 
places,  and  for  Paul  to  have  heard  of  this,  requires  some 
time.  Paul  has  had  communications  from  the  Eastern 
churches  making  mention  of  what  they  knew  about  his 
missionary  work  at  Thessalonica.  '  For  they  themselves 
report  concerning  us,'  he  says,  'what  manner  of  entering  in 
we  had  unto  you ;  (verse  9).  This  is  a  striking  statement, 
shewing  what  close  and  frequent  communication  there 
was  between  the  churches  scattered  round  the  Levant, 
and  what  warm  interest  they  took  in  one  another.  In 
the  flourishing  state  of  trade  under  the  Roman  Empire 
at  this  time  ships  were  sailing  to  and  fro  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  there  was  ready  and  frequent  communication, 
especially  between  the  great  provincial  capitals,  and 
Thessalonica,  Ephesus,  Antioch,  and  Corinth— the  cen- 
tres of  the  chief  Christian  churches  in  which  Paul  was 


INTRODUCTION  23 

interested — were  all  capitals  of  provinces.  But  while 
the  communication  between  these  places  would  be  as 
easy  and  rapid  as  was  ever  known  in  ancient  times,  of 
course  it  would  be  very  slow  compared  with  our  rates 
of  motion — sailing-ships  at  sea,  caravans  of  camels  on 
land — and  therefore  we  must  allow  some  time.  Paul's  stay 
at  Corinth  extended  to  eighteen  months.  But  we  cannot 
assign  the  writing  of  the  Epistle  to  the  latter  part  of  that 
period ;  its  reference  to  the  reception  of  the  news  of  the 
conversion  of  the  Thessalonians  in  other  places  shews 
that  this  is  a  recent  event.  The  Epistle  was  written 
immediately  after  Timothy's  return  from  his  special 
mission  (iii.  6).  The  purpose  of  that  mission,  which 
was  in  part  to  relieve  the  Apostle's  anxiety  about  his 
friends  at  Thessalonica  during  his  enforced  absence  from 
them,  would  not  allow  of  long  stay  in  the  city.  A  few 
months,  which  would  be  sufficient  for  the  travelling  and 
spreading  of  news,  is  all  that  the  circumstances  require. 
Seeing,  however,  that  winter  was  a  close  time  for  navi- 
gation we  cannot  well  allow  of  less  than  six  months. 
Probably  Paul  would  travel  down  the  coast  to  Athens 
before  the  autumn  equinoxial  gales.  At  the  same  time 
letters  or  messengers  would  go  out  to  the  Eastern  churches 
with  the  wonderful  news  of  what  was  happening  in 
Macedonia.  In  the  spring,  when  navigation  was  opened 
again,  the  churches  in  the  East  would  send  back  their 
congratulations  to  Paul.  By  that  time  the  dispatch  of 
Timothy,  and  his  return,  would  have  taken  place.  Thus 
we  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Epistle  was  written 
from  Corinth  after  the  Apostle's  first  winter  in  that 
city,  which,  according  to  the  usually  accepted  chronology, 
would  be  A.  D.  53. 

These  facts  lead  us  to  a  pretty  clear  understanding  of 
the  circumstances  under  which  the  Epistle  was  written 
and  the  Apostle's  object  in  sending  it.  He  had  been 
compelled  to  leave  Thessalonica  before  he  had  finished 
his  work  there.    While  at  Athens  he  had  wondered  what 


24  I  THESSALONIANS 

was  going  on,  and  longed  to  be  back  among  his  converts 
in  the  north.  The  prohibition  of  the  politarchs  seemed 
to  him  just  an  instance  of  Satan's  interference  with  his 
work.  To  relieve  his  own  anxiety  and  give  some  coun- 
sel and  encouragement  to  the  Thessalonians  he  had  sent 
Timothy  on  the  special  mission,  already  frequently  referred 
to.  Timothy  had  returned  with  cheering  news  about 
the  constancy  of  the  Thessalonians,  though  with  painful 
information  concerning  the  persecution  they  had  to  en- 
dure from  their  cruel  neighbours.  Besides  these  general 
facts  there  were  certain  specific  details  in  the  condition 
of  the  church  at  Thessalonica  that  called  for  counsel 
from  its  founder.  Dr.  Rendel  Harris  has  suggested  that 
Paul  had  sent  a  letter — which  has  been  lost— with 
Timothy  to  Thessalonica,  and  that  the  Thessalonians 
had  replied  in  another  letter  which  Paul  answers  in  our 
first  Epistle1. 

This  is  an  ingenious  suggestion,  but  our  Epistle  does 
not  bear  the  indications  of  a  reply  to  another  letter  which 
we  meet  with  in  i  Corinthians,  an  Epistle  which  plainly 
shews  that  it  is  an  answer  to  a  letter  received  from 
Corinth.  The  more  general  character  of  the  allusions  to 
the  information  brought  by  Timothy  rather  implies  that 
this  had  been  delivered  by  word  of  mouth. 

The  first  and  chief  piece  of  information  greatly  relieved 
the  Apostle's  mind  and  filled  him  with  joy  and  gratitude. 
The  young  plant,  left  by  the  gardener  to  be  exposed  to 
fiery  heat  so  soon  after  he  had  set  it  in  the  soil,  had 
not  withered  away,  but  was  flourishing  bravely  and  bear- 
ing fruit.  These  new  converts  from  heathenism  were 
remaining  faithful,  and  were  already  developing  the  most 
beautiful  graces  of  the  Christian  life.  Nothing  could 
bring  greater  joy  to  the  heart  of  a  true  missionary. 
Nevertheless  it  was  painful  to  hear  of  the  wrongs  and 
hardships  they  had  to  endure.     Paul  sympathizes  with 

1  See  Expositor,  Sept.  1898. 


INTRODUCTION  25 

them  in  their  distresses  while  congratulating  them  on 
their  fidelity.  He  never  has  to  charge  his  Macedonians 
with  the  grave  faults  he  mentions  in  writing  to  other 
churches — the  factiousness  and  loose  moral  discipline  of 
the  Corinthians,  the  abandonment  of  the  essence  of  the 
gospel  for  Jewish  practices  to  which  the  Galatians  were 
yielding,  the  philosophic  speculations  that  were  fascinating 
some  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ephesus.  The  two  Mace- 
donian churches,  the  Philippian  and  the  Thessalonian, 
are  the  churches  that  receive  the  warmest  commendation 
from  the  Apostle.  At  the  same  time  there  are  two  or 
three  points  in  Timothy's  report  that  demand  attention. 
Something  must  have  called  for  the  Apostle's  very  explicit 
defence  of  his  own  conduct  and  protest  of  the  unselfish- 
ness of  his  aims  when  at  Thessalonica.  This  indicates 
that  some  suspicion  had  been  raised  with  regard  to  his 
character  and  motives.  Probably  his  Jewish  antagonists 
had  attempted  to  poison  the  minds  of  weak,  credulous 
members  of  the  church,  suggesting  that  Paul  was  acting 
with  self-seeking  aims  in  claiming  their  allegiance. 

That  distress  about  the  death  of  some  of  the  members 
for  fear  they  should  not  have  their  share  in  the  blessed- 
ness of  Christ's  return  especially  needed  to  be  set  right. 
Probably  the  Thessalonians  had  asked  Timothy  to  con- 
sult the  Apostle  on  the  point.  He  gives  a  definite  and 
quite  reassuring  reply.  The  deceased  Christians  will  miss 
nothing.  They  will  accompany  Christ  in  his  triumph. 
The  living  will  have  no  precedence  over  them  in  welcoming 
their  Lord.  There  are  certain  other  matters  connected 
with  Timothy's  report  on  the  condition  of  the  Thessalo- 
nians that  occasion  the  Apostle  some  anxiety.  He 
gravely  warns  them  against  lapsing  into  immorality,  the 
temptations  to  which  are  so  frequent  in  a  great,  dissolute, 
pagan  city  given  up  to  the  habits  of  the  later  Greek 
corrupt  civilization.  A  certain  feverish  restlessness,  due 
to  dwelling  too  much  on  the  expected  coming  of  Christ, 
needs  to  be  subdued.     The  Christians  must  keep  to  their 


26  I  THESSALONIANS 

daily  work,  and  earn  a  good  character  for  sobriety  and 
industry  among  their  neighbours.  The  possibility  of  the 
sudden  coming  of  Christ  at  any  time  should  induce  this 
combination  of  sobriety  and  diligence.  Reading  between 
the  lines  of  the  concluding  exhortations  we  may  gather 
that  some  were  disorderly,  some  faint-hearted,  some  weak 
and  rather  trying.  There  was  a  tendency  to  despise  and 
repress  the  utterances  of  the  more  enthusiastic  members 
of  the  church.  These  defects  should  be  overcome  in 
a  spirit  of  wise  and  patient  brotherliness. 

Characteristics  and  Leading  Ideas. 

The  Apostle's  style  in  this  Epistle,  and  also  in  the 
following  Epistle,  is  much  simpler  than  in  his  later  works, 
just  as  Carlyle's  Essays  and  Life  of  John  Sterling  are 
simpler  than  his  French  Revolution.  There  is  neither 
the  vehemence  and  passion  we  meet  with  in  Galatians, 
nor  the  vigour  and  argumentative  earnestness  of  the 
Corinthian  and  Roman  letters,  nor  the  rich  elaboration  of 
ideas  in  thick  clusters  that  are  found  in  the  Epistles 
of  the  captivity.  The  style  is  limpid  and  easy ;  the 
sentences  natural  and  readily  intelligible ;  the  thought  clear 
and  elementary.  Nevertheless  the  essentially  Pauline 
spirit  and  temper  are  here.  First  we  have  Paul's  sublime 
egoism,  not  so  prominent  as  in  2  Corinthians  and  Galatians, 
but  still  very  marked.  The  apostle  does  not  shrink  from 
writing  about  himself,  defending  himself,  revealing  him- 
self. Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  two  Epistles, 
this  is  necessary  in  order  to  clear  up  misunderstandings 
and  refute  calumnies  that  are  positive  hindrances  to  his 
work ;  and  possibly  to  some  extent  that  is  so  here  also. 
But  apart  from  these  special  requirements  we  must  allow 
that  a  natural  trait  of  the  Apostle's  character  here  breaks 
out.  We  often  see  this  in  men  of  very  pronounced  per- 
sonality—in Augustine,  in  Luther,  in  John  Wesley— among 
the  saints  as  evidently  as  in  great  men  of  worldly  aims 


INTRODUCTION  27 

such  as  Julius  Caesar,  and  that  prince  of  egoists,  Napoleon 
Buonaparte.  The  remarkable  thing  in  the  case  of  good 
men  is  that  their  egoism  can  be  separated  from  selfishness. 
Paul  was  a  most  wonderfully  unselfish  man.  If  he  talked 
freely  about  himself  it  was  not  that  he  wanted  to  gain  any 
personal  end  or  that  he  was  affected  with  foolish  vanity 
and  love  of  admiration.  His  sublime,  self-sacrificing, 
whole-hearted  devotion  to  his  life-mission  excludes  all  such 
unworthy  ideas.  Paul  is  an  egoist  in  part  because  his 
subjectivity  is  very  intense.  He  is  a  man  of  deep  feelings, 
and  he  cannot  prevent  his  emotions  from  coming  to  the 
surface.  His  genius  is  seen  in  the  power  he  possesses 
for  impressing  his  own  personality  on  others.  No  doubt 
this  is  one  reason  why  the  specific  '  Pauline  Theology ' 
fell  into  neglect  in  the  church  immediately  after  the 
Apostle's  death.  It  needed  the  magnetic  influence  of  his 
presence  to  keep  men  in  touch  with  great  and  difficult 
ideas  that  were  so  much  in  advance  of  the  age. 

Then,  closely  associated  with  this  egoism  as  being  very 
personal  to  the  Apostle,  but  as  the  opposite  pole  in  his 
character,  balancing  it  and  keeping  it  clear  of  the  septic 
influence  of  selfishness,  we  have  his  warm-hearted  affection 
for  his  converts.  Nowhere  is  this  more  apparent  than 
in  the  letters  he  addressed  to  his  Macedonian  friends  at 
Philippi  and  Thessalonica.  If  he  is  egoistic  enough  to 
write  '  be  ye  imitators  of  us,'  he  is  generous  enough  to  add, 
4  ye  became  an  ensample  to  all  that  believe  in  Macedonia 
and  in  Achaia.'  If  he  speaks  of  having  been  i  gentle  in 
the  midst  of  you,  as  when  a  nurse  cherisheth  her  own 
children,'  he  is  perfectly  honest  in  adding,  '  we  were  well 
pleased  to  impart  unto  you,  not  the  gospel  of  God  only, 
but  also  our  own  souls,  because  ye  were  become  very  dear 
to  us.'  That  is  why  the  Apostle  felt  his  enforced  absence 
so  keenly.  He  was  devoted  to  these  people,  whom  he  had 
won  by  his  short  ministry  among  them,  to  a  degree  only 
possible  with  a  man  of  large  heart  and  most  warm 
affectionateness. 


28  I  THESSALONIANS 

What  is  regarded  as  the  characteristically  Pauline 
doctrine  is  not  at  all  prominent  in  this  Epistle.  There  are 
no  definite  utterances  about  the  person  of  Christ  and  the 
atoning  influence  of  his  death  such  as  we  meet  with  in 
the  later  Epistles.  That  the  flesh  is  the  seat  of  sin,  that 
we  are  helpless  to  work  out  our  own  salvation,  that  the 
law  is  of  no  use  for  this  purpose,  that  Christians  are  free 
from  the  law's  claims,  that  Gentiles  are  on  a  level  with 
Jews  in  the  Christian  privileges,  that  justification  is  by 
faith — these  well-known,  specific  Pauline  doctrines  are 
not  touched  upon,  or  if  in  some  cases  alluded  to,  are  never 
expounded  and  enforced  as  in  the  Apostle's  subsequent 
writings.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  never  denied  ;  there 
is  nothing  inconsistent  with  them  ;  all  that  Paul  here  says 
is  in  full  agreement  with  them  ;  some  of  them  are  actually 
hinted  at,  and  others  may  be  said  to  underlie  statements  or 
exhortations  that  imply  them.  We  may  feel  sure  that  if 
Paul  had  written  this  Epistle  at  a  later  period  of  his  life 
he  would  not  have  repressed  his  intense  interest  in  these 
themes  ;  they  would  have  burst  out  again  and  again,  as  the 
waters  of  a  full  fountain  must  overflow.  Still  the  purpose 
of  the  Epistle  was  not  to  discuss  such  subjects,  and  his 
thoughts  were  not  now  drawn  to  them. 

Taking  the  ideas  of  the  Epistle  as  they  occur,  we  see, 
in  the  first  place,  how  vividly  the  thought  of  God  is 
present  to  the  Apostle's  mind  throughout.  The  very 
name '  God '  occurs  no  less  than  thirty-six  times,  and  the 
relation  of  Christians  to  God  is  emphatically  stated  again 
and  again.  The  'gospel  of  God'  is  the  name  of  the 
Christian  message,  and  the  striking  characteristic  of  the 
Thessalonians  which  is  being  celebrated  among  the  sister 
churches  is  their '  faith  to  God-ward '  (i.  8).  This  may  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  they  had  been  idolaters  and 
had  turned  from  idols  unto  God—'  to  serve  a  living  and 
true  God.'  Jews  who  knew  the  God  of  their  fathers 
were  called  on  to  accept  Jesus  as  their  Messiah  ;  but  the 
heathen  had  to  be  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  a  spiritual 


INTRODUCTION  29 

God  as  well  as  to  receive  the  message  about  Jesus  Christ. 
In  the  next  place  we  see  that  the  relation  of  Christians 
to  Christ  is  also  dwelt  on.  The  church  is  described  as 
being  '  in  God  the  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.' 
The  Apostle  does  not  refer  to  our  Lord's  earthly  life  and 
teachings,  but  he  mentions  the  death  of  Christ  in  two 
aspects  of  it.  (1)  As  regards  the  Jews  who  brought  it 
about  and  who  are  charged  with  the  guilt  of  it.  They 
'  both  killed  the  Lord  Jesus  and  the  prophets,  and  drave  out 
us  '  (ii.  15).  (2)  As  regards  Christians,  who  are  appointed 
I  unto  the  obtaining  of  salvation  through  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  who  died  for  us '  (v.  9),  literally  died  on  our  behalf. 
This  implies  a  purpose  in  Christ's  death,  that  it  was  not  a 
mere  murder,  that  it  was  more  than  martyrdom,  that  some 
benefit  for  Christians,  the  salvation  just  referred  to,  was 
the  end  to  be  obtained  by  the  death  of  Christ.  Thus 
even  in  this  earliest  Epistle  the  Apostle  hints  at  his  great 
doctrine  of  the  cross  of  Christ.  Still  he  does  not  explain 
and  elaborate  it  here  as  he  does  later  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans.  Then  he  mentions  the  resurrection  of  Christ  as 
effected  by  God,  saying  f  whom  he  raised  from  the  dead, 
even  Jesus  '  (i.  10).  But  the  dominant  idea  concerning 
Christ  running  through  the  whole  Epistle  is  the  expecta- 
tion of  his  return  to  this  world  in  great  glory  and  power. 
This  'second  coming '  of  Christ,  known  as  the  'Parousia,'  is 
the  most  prominent  thought  in  the  Epistle,  in  part  because 
it  was  a  matter  of  keen  interest  to  the  Thessalonians,  but 
also  because  the  Apostle  himself  set  a  high  value  upon  it. 
It  has  been  recently  argued  that  it  was  the  principal  topic 
in  the  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ  himself,  who,  whenever  he 
spoke  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  meant  that  great  triumphant 
new  order  of  the  future  which  would  be  set  up  on  his 
return  to  this  world  in  glory  with  the  angels1.  While 
few  will  agree  with  that  extreme  view  of  the  case,  it  must 
be  admitted  that  the  idea  of  Christ's  return  bulked  largely 
in  the  thoughts  of  the  early  Christians.     We  meet  with  it 

1  See  J.  Weiss,  Die  Predigt  Jesu  vom  Reiche  Gottes. 


3o  I  THESSALONIANS 

throughout  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  though  it  is  less  prominent 
in  the  later  than  in  the  earlier  Epistles.  In  John  this 
expectation  is  based  on  the  materialistic  pictures  of  the 
Messianic  Age  which  are  found  in  Jewish  Apocalypses. 
The  triumph  and  splendour  there  portrayed,  which  were 
not  realized  among  the  humble  scenes  of  our  Lord's 
ministry  on  earth,  were  thought  by  his  followers  to  be 
postponed  to  the  time  of  his  Second  Advent.  Thus  the 
church  was  in  danger  of  coming  down  to  as  earthly  a  con- 
ception of  the  Messianic  blessings  as  that  which  the  Jews 
themselves  were  holding  at  the  time  of  Christ.  What 
these  Jews  expected  at  the  first  coming  of  Christ  the 
Christians  were  inclined  to  look  for  at  his  second  coming. 
Of  course  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  whole  differ- 
ence between  Jew  and  Christian  turned  on  the  merely 
arithmetical  question  of  a  first  or  a  second  advent  of  the 
Messiah  to  accomplish  precisely  the  same  results.  Jesus 
had  revolutionized  the  whole  conception  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  and  of  the  Christ  who  was  to  bring  it  about, 
lifting  it  into  the  atmosphere  of  the  spiritual.  Still,  old 
Jewish  notions  clung  to  the  Christian  hope,  and  it  was 
long  before  they  were  outgrown.  The  Thessalonians  had 
received  all  their  teaching  about  Christianity  from  Paul 
and  his  fellow  missionaries  ;  but  they  had  not  observed 
true  proportions  in  their  reception  of  it.  They  had  seized 
on  that  idea  of  the  second  coming  of  Christ  with  avidity, 
and  allowed  it  to  work  on  their  imaginations  so  as  to 
colour  and  rule  everything  else.  Paul  too  participated  in 
the  belief  with  the  rest  of  the  early  Christians,  though  he 
kept  it  in  its  place.  At  this  period  he  seems  to  have 
expected  a  visible  return  of  Jesus  Christ  during  his  own 
lifetime.  Later  he  came  to  anticipate  death  for  himself 
followed  by  union  with  Christ  in  the  realm  of  the  blessed 
(see  2  Cor.  v.  1-5  ;  Phil.  i.  21-25).  As  sharing  the  common 
Christian  belief  in  the  speedy  second  coming  of  Christ, 
the  Apostle  writes  to  the  Thessalonians,  to  whom  it  means 
so  much,  in  order  to  relieve  their  minds  of  needless 


INTRODUCTION  31 

anxiety  about  their  departed  friends  and  to  warn  them  so 
to  live  that  they  may  be  ready  for  the  sudden  appearance 
of  their  Lord  at  any  moment — *  as  a  thief  in  the  night' 
Now  the  question  arises,  was  all  this  a  delusion  ? 
Certainly  Christ  did  not  return  in  the  visible  way  expected 
by  the  early  Christians.  But  '  illusion '  is  a  better  word 
than  '  delusion '  with  which  to  describe  their  condition. 
We  are  always  being  educated  by  illusions.  '  Things  are 
not  w"hat  they  seem.'  Yet  they  exist.  To  primitive  man 
the  sun  seems  to  rise  and  set ;  to  all  of  us  who  know 
better  it  wears  that  appearance.  Yet  we  are  not  funda- 
mentally deluded  about  the  appearance  of  the  sun.  The 
phenomena  of  day  and  night  are  real,  and  they  do  really 
depend  on  changing  relations  between  the  sun  and  the 
earth.  Christ  might  come  in  other  ways  than  were 
expected — in  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  persecuting 
power,  in  the  spread  of  Christianity  and  the  victory  of  his 
spirit  over  the  world,  in  any  judgement  of  evil,  in  any 
triumph  of  God  of  which  he  was  the  centre  and  source 
and  vital  power.  Then,  though  the  sensation  of  wonders 
appearing  in  the  clouds  would  not  be  enjoyed,  the  real 
end  of  the  second  coming  would  be  accomplished.  But 
this  was  not  so  understood  at  the  time.  When  Paul  wrote 
about  the  Lord  descending  from  heaven,  with  the  shout, 
the  voice  of  the  Archangel,  the  trump  of  God,  the  rising 
of  the  dead — i.  e.  coming  out  of  their  graves — and  the 
living  being  caught  up  in  the  clouds  to  meet  the  Lord  in 
the  air,  all  this  would  be  taken  literally.  And  when  he 
added  'comfort  one  another  with  these  words,'  the 
consolation  would  be  found  in  the  vivid  anticipation 
that  these  things  were  shortly  about  to  happen  in  a  visible, 
audible,  external  way  exactly  according  to  the  literal 
meaning  of  the  Apostle's  language. 

For  the  rest,  the  Epistle  consists  mainly  of  expressions 
of  personal  interest  in  the  Thessalonians  and  practical 
exhortations  concerning  their  conduct.  The  Apostle 
does  not  hesitate  to  congratulate  his  readers  on  their 


32  I  THESSALONIANS 

full  acceptance  of  the  gospel  message  and  loyalty  to  it. 
But  while  Christian  graces  are  generally  acknowledged, 
an  increase  in  them  is  to  be  desired.  Therefore  Paul 
exhorts  the  Thessalonians  to  make  progress,  especially 
in  the  supreme  Christian  duty  of  love.  This  he  urges 
more  than  once,  saying,  '  the  Lord  make  you  to  increase 
and  abound  in  love  one  toward  another,  and  toward  all 
men'  (iii.  12);  and  again,  'But  concerning  love  of  the 
brethren  ye  have  no  need  that  one  write  unto  you :  for 
ye  yourselves  are  taught  of  God  to  love  one  another ; 
for  indeed  ye  do  it  toward  all  the  brethren  which  are 
in  all  Macedonia.  But  we  exhort  you,  brethren,  that  ye 
abound  more  and  more3  (iv.  9,  10).  Then  the  fussiness 
and  flightiness  of  those  who  are  too  taken  up  with  the 
grand  expectation  to  attend  to  their  duty  are  rebuked,  and 
they  are  urged  to  give  their  mind  to  their  daily  work. 
One  effect  of  this  great  expectation  should  be  sobriety 
and  purity  of  life.  Constant  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
lapse  into  the  vices  of  heathendom.  Altogether  the  life  of 
the  church,  in  its  devotion,  purity,  and  brotherly  sympathy 
should  be  maintained  and  strengthened.  Thus  we  see 
that  the  chief  purpose  of  the  Epistle  is  not  to  establish 
doctrine,  as  in  Romans ;  nor  to  refute  error,  as  in 
Galatians  ;  nor  to  correct  irregularities  of  conduct,  as 
in  I  Corinthians  ;  but  to  cheer,  edify,  and  encourage  the 
Christian  life.  Much  the  same  purpose  influenced  the 
Apostle  in  sending  the  second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians, 
and  again  several  years  later  in  writing  to  the  neighbouring 
Macedonian  church  at  Philippi.  We  do  not  go  to  such 
outpourings  of  the  heart  as  to  a  quarry  out  of  which  to 
extract  materials  for  the  construction  of  a  system  of 
theology.  In  the  first  place  they  throw  an  interesting 
light  on  the  characters  of  the  writer  and  of  the  readers 
for  whom  they  were  primarily  intended,  and  also  on  the 
condition  of  primitive  Christianity  ;  and  then  they  serve 
for  all  time  as  guides  and  inspiring  influences  for  the 
encouraging  and  uplifting  of  the  Christian  life. 


CONTENTS  OF  THE   EPISTLE 

Salutation,  i.  i. 

Paul,  with  the  two  companions  whom  he  brings  in  as 
associates  in  writing  the  Epistle,  addresses  his  readers 
as  a  church  in  union  with  God  the  Father  and  Jesus 
Christ,  and  greets  them  with  the  usual  Christian  expression 
of  a  desire  for  grace  and  peace  to  be  with  them. 

Thanksgivings  and  congratulations,  i.  2-10. 

According  to  his  custom  Paul  begins  by  thanking  God 
for  the  good  that  he  recognizes  in  the  people  he  is 
addressing.  They  are  much  in  his  prayers,  and  when 
he  prays  for  them  he  gives  thanks  also.  Not  only  in 
their  own  province  of  Macedonia  and  in  Paul's  present 
abode,  Achaia,  but  everywhere  else,  the  wonderful  story 
of  their  reception  of  the  gospel  and  rejection  of  idols  for 
the  living  God  is  famed  abroad. 

Reminiscences  of  the  Apostle's  ministry  at  Thessalonica, 
ii.  1-12. 

This,  as  he  reminds  his  readers,  followed  the  shameful 
treatment  he  had  received  at  Philippi,  and  it  had  met  with 
much  opposition.  Yet  it  was  marked  by  (1)  boldness, 
(2)  purity  and  truthfulness,  (3)  fidelity  to  God,  irrespective 
of  pleasing   men,   and  without   seeking   human  honour, 

(4)  gentleness,  as  of  a  nurse  cherishing  her  own  children, 

(5)  disinterestedness,  the  Apostle  labouring  assiduously 
with  his  own  hands  in  order  that  he  might  not  be  burden- 
some to  the  poor  men  whom  he  was  gathering  into 
discipleship,  (6)  a  blameless  example,  and  (7)  an  affec- 
tionate, fatherly  treatment  of  the  new  converts. 

Thanksgivings  again,  ii.  13-16. 

Paul  thanks  God  that  the  Thessalonians  have  received 
his  message  as  no  less  than  the  word  of  God,  and  have 
become  imitators  of  the  churches  in  Judaea,  having  suffered 
persecution  as  they  too  had  suffered.  This  leads  to  a  short 
digression  in  which  the  wickedness  of  the  Jews  in  killing 
the  Lord  Jesus  and  carrying  on  other  cruelties  is  de- 
nounced. 

(9)  D 


34  CONTENTS  OF  THE  EPISTLE 

Paul's  eager  desire  to  visit  the  Thessalonians  frustrated, 
li.  17-20. 

More  than  once  he  has  urgently  wished  to  set  out  on 
a  visit  to  Thessalonica  ;  but  Satan  has  hindered  it.  His 
reason  for  desiring  it  so  intensely  is  that  the  Thessalonians 
are  the  chief  source  of  his  hope  and  joy. 

The  mission  of  Timothy,  iii.  1-10. 

Unable  to  go  himself,  Paul  had  sent  Timothy  to  encourage 
the  church  and  bring  him  back  a  report  of  its  condition. 
Timothy  has  returned  with  most  cheering  news,  for  which 
the  Apostle  is  very  thankful. 

Hope  of  yet  visiting1  Thessalonica,  iii.  n-13. 

Paul  still  cherishes  the  hope  of  visiting  his  friends,  and 
meanwhile  prays  that  their  Christian  character  may  be 
made  secure  in  view  of  the  coming  of  Christ. 

Exhortation  to  purity  of  life,  iv.  1-8. 

The  Apostle  exhorts  his  readers  to  increase  in  the 
excellences  he  already  recognizes  in  them.  He  reminds 
them  of  his  exhortation  when  with  them  to  avoid  the 
prevalent  heathen  immoral  practices,  to  respect  and  honour 
their  own  wives,  and  not  to  wrong  any  men  by  their 
conduct  towards  other  people's  wives. 

On  hrotherly  love  and  quiet  work,  iv.  9-12. 

It  is  really  unnecessary  for  Paul  to  write  about  brotherly 
love,  for  God  has  already  taught  the  Thessalonians  to 
practise  this  duty.  But  he  urges  them  to  abound  in  it 
more  and  more,  and  at  the  same  time  to  attend  quietly  to 
their  businesses,  working  with  their  own  hands. 

The  state  of  the  blessed  dead,  iv.  13-18. 

The  Thessalonians  should  not  sorrow  for  their  departed 
friends,  like  the  rest  of  the  world  who  have  no  hope. 
These  friends  will  not  miss  the  glory  of  the  coming  of 
Christ,  but  will  come  with  him,  rising  first,  and  then  the 
living  will  be  caught  up  to  meet  him  in  the  air. 

The  sudden  coming*  of  Christ,  v.  i-3. 

This  will  be  like  the  coming  of  a  thief  in  the  night,  with 
sudden  destruction,  and  as  unavoidable  as  travail  in  a 
woman  with  child. 

Consequent  call  for  watchfulness  and  sobriety,  v.  4-1 1. 

As  sons  of  light  expecting  this  great  event  Christians 
should  be  sober  and  on  their  guard,  for  they  are  not 
appointed  to  wrath,  but  to  obtain  salvation  through  Christ 
in  order  that  they  may  always  live  with  him. 


INTRODUCTION  35 

Various  practical  exhortations,  v.  12-22. 
To  honour  the  leaders  of  the  church. 
To  be  at  peace  among  themselves. 
To  admonish  or  encourage  according  to  requirement. 
To  avoid  all  retaliation  of  evil. 
To  pray  and  praise  unceasingly. 

Not  to  repress  enthusiastic  utterances,  but  to  test  and 
sift  them. 

To  avoid  all  evil. 

Final  commendations  and  benediction,  v.  23-28. 

The  Thessalonians  are  commended  to  the  keeping  of 
God.  Paul  seeks  their  prayers,  sends  a  salutation  to  ever}' 
member,  solemnly  requiring  the  Epistle  to  be  read  to  all 
the  brethren,  and  ends  with  a  benediction. 


D     2 


II   THESSALONIANS 


Genuineness. 

More  doubt  has  been  felt  about  the  genuineness  of 
this  Epistle  than  concerning  the  question  of  the  origin 
of  I  Thessalonians,  and  in  the  present  day  there  are 
critics  who  reject  it  while  accepting  the  earlier  Epistle 
as  Paul's — Hilgenfeld,  for  instance.  There  is  no  objec- 
tion on  the  ground  of  lack  of  early  references.  On  the 
contrary,  this  Epistle  appears  to  have  been  in  the  hands 
of  more  ancient  writers  than  any  whose  testimony  can  be 
cited  for  the  use  of  I  Thessalonians.  It  seems  to  have 
been  known  to  Polycarp  of  Smyrna,  who  was  a  very 
old  man  when  he  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  middle 
of  the  second  century.  Writing  to  the  neighbouring 
church  of  Philippi,  khe  says :  '  But  I  have  not  found 
any  such  thing  in  you' — i.e.  covetousness  or  idolatry, 
which  he  has  just  been  denouncing — 'neither  have  heard 
thereof,  among  whom  the  blessed  Paul  laboured,  who 
were  his  epistles1  in  the  beginning.  For  he  boasteth 
of  you  in  all  those  churches  which  alone  at  that  time 
knew  God2.' 

This  seems  to  be  a  reference  to  Paul's  words  in  our 
Epistle,  'so  that  we  glory  in  you  in  the  churches  of  God' 
(2  Thess.  i.  4).  It  is  true  that  the  application  of  the 
words  by  Polycarp  is  to  the  Philippians,  while  Paul 
wrote  them  in  a  letter  to  the  Thessalonians.     But  the  two 

1  No  doubt  a  reference  to  2  Cor.  iii.  2,  fYe  are  our  epistle, 
written  in  our  hearts,  known  and  read  of  all  men.' 

2  Polycarp,  Epist.  to  Phil.  xi. 


INTRODUCTION  37 

churches  were  comprehended  in  the  one  title  '  Mace- 
donian,' and  we  know  that  when  Paul  did  what  he  here 
mentions,  and  celebrated  the  praises  of  these  churches, 
it  was  under  their  common  name,  as  when  he  says  to 
the  Corinthians,  '  we  make  known  to  you  the  grace 
of  God  which  hath  been  given  in  the  churches  of 
Macedonia'  (2  Cor.  viii.  1).  In  another  place  Polycarp 
uses  the  expression, '  count  not  such  as  enemies,  but  restore 
them  as  frail  and  erring  members  V  which  appears  to  be 
an  echo  of  the  Apostle's  words,  '  count  him  not  as  an 
enemy,  but  admonish  him  as  a  brother'  (2  Thess.  iii.  15). 
Then  Justin  Martyr,  writing  in  the  middle  of  the  second 
century,  says :  '  He  shall  come  from  heaven  with  glory, 
when  the  man  of  apostasy,  who  speaks  strange  things 
against  the  Most  High,  shall  venture  to  do  unlawful 
deeds  on  the  earth  against  us  the  Christians2.'  This 
seems  to  be  a  clear  reference  to  the  mysterious  passage 
in  our  Epistle  about  'the  man  of  sin*  (2  Thess.  ii.  1-12). 
He  also  has  the  expression  'the  man  of  sin'  in  an 
earlier  passage,  where  he  is  discussing  the  Second 
Advent3.  Irenasus  is  the  first  writer  to  mention  the 
Epistle  by  name.  After  quoting  various  other  passages 
from  Paul's  Epistles,  which  he  duly  ascribes  to  that 
apostle,  he  writes,  'And  again,  in  the  second  to  the 
Thessalonians,  speaking  of  Antichrist,  he  says,  "And 
then  shall  that  wicked  be  revealed,  whom  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  shall  slay  with  the  Spirit  of  his  mouth,  and 
shall  destroy  him  with  the  presence  of  his  coming ; 
[even  him]  whose  coming  is  after  the  working  of  Satan, 
with  all  power,  and  signs,  and  lying  wonders 4 ".'  This 
passage  is  evidently  taken  from  2  Thess.  ii.  8,  9.  A  little 
later  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Tertullian  quote  from 
the  Epistle.  It  was  in  Marcion's  collection  of  Paul's 
Epistles,  and  admitted  into  the  Canon  of  the  '  Muratorian 
Fragment5.'     Both  the  old  Latin  and  the  Syriac  versions, 

1  Pclycarp,  Epist.  to  Phil.  xi.         ~  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  ex. 
3  ibid,  xxxii.  4  Against  Heresies,  in.  7.  5  See  p.  iS. 


38  II  THESSALONIANS 

dating  back  to  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
contain  our  Epistle.  No  one  seems  to  have  questioned  it 
in  ancient  times.  Eusebius,  who  discriminated  between 
different  books  in  the  Canon,  having  one  list  in  which  he 
placed  those  that  were  universally  accepted  and  another 
for  the  books  which  some  questioned,  placed  2  Thessa- 
lonians  in  the  first  list.  This  most  learned  and  fair- 
minded  historian,  writing  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth 
century,  and  having  the  famous  library  of  Pamphilus 
at  Csesarea,  since  scattered  and  destroyed,  at  his  service, 
knew  of  no  objections  to  the  Epistle  on  the  part  of  any 
more  ancient  author.  Thus  antiquity  speaks  with  unbroken 
unanimity  in  favour  of  accepting  the  Epistle  as  a  genuine 
production  of  the  Apostle  Paul. 

When  we  examine  the  Epistle  itself  we  see  much  that 
speaks  for  its  genuineness.  In  many  respects  it  resembles 
1  Thessalonians.  We  have  the  same  afifectionateness  of 
manner  and  the  same  earnestness  and  personal  interest 
in  the  readers  that  arrest  our  attention  in  the  study  of 
the  earlier  Epistle.  The  writer  is  still  grateful  for  the 
good  progress  that  the  church  has  made,  and  breaks  out 
into  the  language  of  thanksgiving  on  this  account  repeat- 
edly. At  the  same  time  he  finds  it  necessary  to  ad- 
minister practical  exhortations  and  admonitions.  All  this 
strikes  us  as  very  natural  and  real ;  it  is  difficult  to 
discover  the  motive  for  writing  it  if  the  Epistle  is  not 
genuine. 

No  objection  appears  to  have  been  raised  till  early 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the  year  1804  a  German 
critic,  Schmidt,  first  suggested  doubts  on  the  ground 
of  the  strangeness  of  the  teaching  about  'the  man  of 
sin,'  the  apparent  contradiction  between  the  two  Epis- 
tles to  the  Thessalonians,  the  singularity  of  the  pre- 
caution against  fraud  at  the  end  of  our  Epistle,  and  other 
features  of  the  Epistle.  The  attack  was  renewed  in  1839 
by  Kern,  and  then  pushed  home  by  Baur,  who  was 
followed    by    the    Tubingen    School     in     rejecting    the 


INTRODUCTION  39 

Epistle,  and  by  some  not  of  that  school.  The  principal 
Continental  scholars  of  recent  times  who  have  discussed 
the  question  may  be  arranged  as  follows : — 

Denying  the  genuineness:  Hilgenfeld,  Volkmar, 
Holsten,  Hausrath,  Pfleiderer,  Steck,  Holtzmann,  Weiz- 
sacker,  von  Soden. 

In  favour  of  the  genuineness :  Lipsius,  Hofmann, 
Weiss,  Renan,  Reuss,  Sabatier,  Godet. 

Most  English  and  American  scholars  accept  the  Epistle. 

The  objections  to  its  genuineness  arrange  themselves 
under  four  heads  : — 

1.  The  relation  of  this  Epistle  to  1  Thessalonians.  It 
is  said  to  be  for  the  most  part  but  a  repetition  and 
expansion  of  the  earlier  work  ;  and  yet  it  is  accused 
of  contradicting  statements  about  the  Second  Advent 
found  in  that  work. 

2.  The  peculiar  statements  about  cthe  man  of  sin.' 
These  are  said  to  be  not  like  Paul,  and  derived  from 
the  Apocalypse. 

3.  The  supposed  reference  to  a  forged  epistle  in  ii.  2. 
At  so  early  a  date  this  would  not  be  looked  for.  The 
authentication  at  the  close  is  also  said  to  wear  a  sus- 
picious appearance. 

4.  Certain  variations  of  style  that  are  said  to  be  un- 
Pauline. 

1.  The  relation  of  this  Epistle  to  1  Thessalonians 
comes  to  be  considered  as  the  first  objection.  Now 
it  seems  somewhat  inconsistent  to  accuse  it  at  once 
of  imitating  the  earlier  Epistle  and  of  contradicting  that 
work.  Whether  the  contradiction  be  real  or  only  supposed, 
the  very  appearance  of  it  shews  a  certain  independence 
of  mind  that  could  not  be  allowed  to  the  mere  imitator. 
There  are  close  resemblances  between  Galatians  and 
Romans,  which  are  both  allowed  to  be  Paul's  writings, 
and  again  between  Ephesians  and  Colossians,  and 
between  1  Timothy  and  Titus.  The  latter  Epistles 
even,  when  denied  to  Paul,  are  generally  allowed  to  have 


40  II  THESSALONIANS 

both  come  from  the  same  pen.  The  contents  of  our 
Epistle  suggest  that  it  was  written  very  soon  after  the 
earlier  Epistle.  When  the  same  man  is  writing  a  second 
letter  to  the  same  correspondents  dealing  with  the  same 
subjects  shortly  after  his  first  letter  to  them,  it  is  reasonable 
to  expect  to  see  a  good  many  expressions  common  to 
both  letters.     This  is  really  no  serious  objection. 

Now  what  of  the  contradiction  ?  In  I  Thessalonians 
Paul  had  warned  the  church  to  be  on  its  guard,  watching 
and  ready  for  the  sudden  advent  of  Christ,  which  would 
be  like  the  coming  of  a  thief  in  the  night  (i  Thess.  v.  2  fF.). 
But  now  the  principal  purpose  of  2  Thessalonians  is  to 
shew  that  Christ  cannot  be  coming  immediately,  because 
certain  events  must  occur  first,  and  thus,  to  dissuade  the 
readers  from  living  in  an  attitude  of  daily  expectancy,  to 
the  neglect  of  the  common  duties  of  life  (see  2  Thess.  ii. 
1-12).  Is  there  any  contradiction  here?  Did  Paul  say 
in  the  First  Epistle  that  Christ  was  coming  immediately  ? 
There  is  no  statement  to  that  effect  from  beginning  to 
end  of  the  Epistle.  What  he  does  suggest  is  that  Christ 
will  come  suddenly,  without  warning;  he  says  nothing 
about  the  time  when  that  startling  event  will  occur.  The 
illustration  of  the  thief  in  the  night  implies  that  we  do 
not  know  when  it  will  take  place.  Jesus  Christ  uses  the 
same  image  to  teach  this  very  lesson,  when  he  says,  *  But 
know  this,  that  if  the  master  of  the  house  had  known  in 
what  watch  the  thief  was  coming,  he  would  have  watched, 
and  would  not  have  suffered  his  house  to  be  broken 
through.  Therefore  be  ye  also  ready:  for  in  an  hour 
that  ye  think  not  the  Son  of  man  cometh '  (Matt.  xxiv. 
43,  44).  Jesus  had  distinctly  said,  '  But  of  that  day  and 
hour  knoweth  no  one,  not  even  the  angels  of  heaven, 
neither  the  Son,  but  the  Father  only  '  (verse  36).  It  is  not 
likely  that  the  Apostle  would  have  professed  knowledge 
of  a  question  concerning  which  his  Master  had  confessed 
ignorance.  The  difference  between  the  two  Epistles 
is  this :    in  the  first,  Paul  teaches  that  Christ  will  come 


INTRODUCTION  41 

suddenly  and  without  warning,  whenever  that  may  be; 
in  the  second,  he  teaches  that  it  cannot  be  just  yet. 

We  must  allow  then  that  there  is  no  actual  contradiction 
on  this  point  between  the  two  Epistles.  Nevertheless 
this  is  not  to  entirely  remove  the  difficulty.  The  mental 
attitude  of  the  writer  in  the  Second  Epistle  is  very 
different  from  that  in  the  First.  Although  in  1  Thessa- 
lonians  Paul  does  not  say  that  the  coming  of  Christ  is 
near  at  hand,  he  certainly  implies  that  it  may  be.  Indeed, 
he  rather  suggests  his  own  expectation  that  Christ  will 
come  very  soon.  The  advice  to  be  constantly  on  the 
watch  implies  a  belief  that  something  is  likely  to  happen 
before  long.  It  is  only  reasonable  if  the  possibility  of 
a  speedy  occurrence  is  allowed.  When  once  we  are 
assured  that  this  cannot  yet  come  about  the  requirement 
of  instant  and  continuous  watching  for  it  ceases.  There- 
fore we  must  allow  that  when  Paul  wrote  the  First  Epistle, 
the  idea  of  the  intermediate  occurrence,  the  appearing  of 
'  the  man  of  sin,'  was  not  in  his  mind.  But  when  the 
Second  Epistle  was  written,  this  idea  was  brought  forward 
prominently  and  made  the  chief  object  of  contemplation, 
with  the  express  purpose  of  postponing  the  expectation 
of  the  coming  of  Christ.  Such  a  change  of  attitude  as 
the  introduction  of  this  new  idea  involved  could  not 
but  gravely  modify  the  readers'  views  of  the  admonition 
to  watchfulness,  accompanied  as  it  was  by  that  arresting 
image  of  the  thief  in  the  night,  to  keep  people  on  the 
tip-toe  of  expectation.  But  to  allow  of  this  is  not  to 
disprove  the  Pauline  authorship  of  the  Epistle.  Could 
not  the  Apostle's  own  thought  be  moving  on  ?  We  may 
suppose  that  during  the  interval  his  mind  had  been 
brooding  over  the  subject ;  perhaps  he  had  been  reading 
some  Jewish  Apocalypse  l,  with  the  result  that  he  seemed 
to  see  it  more  clearly  and  so  was  able  to  fill  out  the 
interval   of  intervening  time  to  some   extent.     This  is 

1  See  note  on  3  Thess.  ii.  1-12. 


42  II  THESSALONIANS 

only  in  accordance  with  the  growth  of  revelation  which  we 
see  going  on  throughout  the  Bible.  There  is  no  difficulty 
in  believing  that  it  was  taking  place  in  the  experience  of 
the  great  Apostle. 

But  there  is  a  serious  difficulty  in  the  way  of  accepting 
this  as  an  explanation.  In  the  midst  of  the  passage  about 
'  the  man  of  sin '  Paul  says, '  Remember  ye  not,  that,  when 
I  was  yet  with  you,  I  told  you  these  things?'  (2  Thess. 
ii.  5).  Then  this  is  no  new  revelation,  after  all.  Paul 
had  told  the  Thessalonians  of  these  very  things  when 
he  was  with  them.  When  was  that  ?  It  is  just  possible 
that  he  had  carried  out  the  desire  of  his  heart,  so  touch- 
ingly  recorded  in  the  First  Epistle,  and  paid  a  flying  visit 
to  Thessalonica  between  the  writing  of  the  two  Epistles. 
In  that  case  the  difficulty  vanishes.  Paul  could  then 
have  given  the  instruction  which  he  now  finds  it  necessary 
to  explain  more  fully  and  enforce  again.  There  is  no 
reference  in  Acts  to  any  such  journey,  but  we  know 
from  2  Cor.  xii.  that  Paul  made  many  journeys  that 
are  not  recorded  in  that  historical  work.  If,  however, 
this  was  not  the  case  we  may  allow  for  the  changes  of 
treatment  of  a  subject  which  occur  in  a  thinking  mind, 
so  that  ideas  which  once  were  prominent  may  fall  back 
for  a  time  into  obscurity,  and  then  emerge  later  on  into 
prominence  again. 

2.  It  is  said  that  the  peculiar  statements  about  'the 
man  of  sin '  contained  in  this  Epistle,  together  with  the 
whole  apocalyptic  passage  in  which  they  occur,  are  not  at 
all  like  Paul's  teaching  elsewhere  and  shew  dependence 
on  the  Apocalypse.  This  objection  may  be  broken  up 
into  two  parts  :  first,  the  un-Pauline  character  of  the  pass- 
age ;  second,  the  supposed  dependence  on  the  Apocalypse. 
(1)  As  to  the  first  part  of  the  objection,  it  simply  means 
that  Paul  does  not  discuss  this  obscure  subject  on  any 
other  occasion.  But  surely  he  might  treat  it  once,  and 
only  once,  if  special  circumstances  called  for  the  discus- 
sion.   While  he  dwelt  much  on  the  coming  glory  of  the 


INTRODUCTION  43 

victory  of  Christ  in  his  teaching  throughout  his  ministry, 
his  mind  did  not  frequently  turn  to  apocalyptic  subjects. 
That  must  be  allowed.  But  the  circumstances  of  the 
Thessalonians  at  the  moment  demanded  attention  to 
them.  These  Christians  had  got  so  ill-proportioned  a 
conception  of  Christianity  that  it  was  for  them  primarily 
a  doctrine  of  the  Second  Advent.  To  correct  the  notions 
of  people  who  had  that  way  of  thinking  it  was  necessary 
to  be  as  explicit  as  possible.  Therefore  the  Apostle  deals 
with  this  matter,  not  so  much  because  it  is  a  favourite 
theme  with  him,  but  rather  because  his  correspondents 
require  to  be  set  right  concerning  it.  (2)  Then  as  regards 
the  further  difficulty  that  the  idea  of  '  the  man  of  sin '  in 
particular,  but  also  the  general  apocalyptic  picture,  are 
derived  from  the  Book  of  the  Revelation,  it  should  be 
observed  that  the  case  is  by  no  means  proved.  Indeed, 
some  elements  of  Paul's  teaching  here  are  not  at  all 
harmonious  with  that  book.  It  seems  pretty  clear  that 
the  hindrance  to  'the  man  of  sin'  of  which  he  writes 
must  be  the  Roman  Government,  then  restraining  the 
outbreak  of  Jewish  antagonism  to  Christianity.  Thus 
Rome  is  regarded  favourably  as  an  instrument  in  God's 
hand  for  the  protection  of  His  people.  But  in  the  Book 
of  the  Revelation  Rome  is  Babylon  drunk  with  the 
blood  of  the  saints,  and  judgement  is  denounced  against 
the  imperial  city  for  her  persecution  of  the  Christians. 
Besides,  there  is  a  peculiar  individuality  in  this  mysterious 
'man  of  sin5  which  is  not  found  in  the  Revelation  and 
belongs  only  to  our  Epistle  among  New  Testament  books. 
The  resemblance  may  be  accounted  for  in  another  way. 
It  is  now  widely  conceded  that  the  New  Testament  book  of 
the  Revelation  is  based  on  some  earlier  Jewish  apocalyptic 
writing.  That  writing,  or  rather  the  current  ideas  re- 
produced by  it,  may  have  been  familiar  to  Paul,  and  he 
may  have  adopted  them  and  applied  them  in  a  Christian 
sense.  We  must  not  suppose  that  the  last  book  of  our 
Bible,  since  it  is  unique  in  Scripture,  is  also  unique  in 


44  II  THESSALONIANS 

all  literature.  On  the  contrary,  it  belongs  to  a  kind  of 
composition  that  was  very  popular  at  the  time  when  it 
was  written.  It  is  exceptional  in  its  Christian  inspiration, 
not  in  its  literary  form  or  doctrinal  character.  Even  in 
the  New  Testament  there  are  other  apocalyptic  utter- 
ances. A  great  part  of  what  Paul  here  writes  may  be 
regarded  as  a  development  of  our  Lord's  own  teaching 
on  the  subject  of  his  Second  Advent  as  that  is  recorded  in 
the  Synoptic  Gospels. 

3.  The  reference  to  a  supposed  forged  epistle  (ii.  2)  and 
the  emphatic  authentication  of  our  Epistle  at  the  close 
(iii.  17)  are  pointed  out  as  suspicious  signs.  Let  us  look 
at  the  earlier  point  first.  Paul,  in  exhorting  his  readers 
to  be  calm,  writes,  'to  the  end  that  ye  be  not  quickly 
shaken  from  your  mind,  nor  yet  be  troubled,  either  by 
spirit,  or  by  word,  or  by  epistle  as  fro?n  tis,  as  that  the 
day  of  the  Lord  is  now  present '  (ii.  2).  Some  have  taken 
the  Epistle  here  mentioned  for  our  1  Thessalonians,  and 
have  supposed  that  the  church  had  misapprehended  that 
communication,  gathering  from  it  the  conclusion  that  the 
return  of  Christ  was  to  be  expected  immediately.  We 
can  very  well  understand  how  such  a  mistake  might 
have  been  made.  After  reading  Paul's  words  about  the 
sudden  coming  of  Christ  like  a  thief  in  the  night,  with  the 
accompanying  picture  of  the  dead  rising  and  the  living, 
among  whom  the  writer  included  himself,  being  caught 
up  to  meet  their  Lord  in  the  air,  nothing  would  seem 
more  natural  to  believers  than  to  be  keenly  excited  with 
the  expectation  of  seeing  these  wonders  occurring  very 
speedily.  This  application  of  Paul's  words  fits  in  well 
with  the  general  situation.  But  it  cannot  be  a  true 
interpretation  of  them.  The  word  'as'  is  fatal  to  it. 
An  'epistle  as  from  us'  cannot  mean  'an  epistle  which 
we  wrote ' ;  it  must  mean  '  an  epistle  which  appears  or 
pretends  to  be  from  us.'  If  Paul  had  meant  to  refer  to 
his  former  letter,  why  did  he  not  write,  'the  letter  I  sent 
you  previously,'  or  other  words  to  that  effect?    Still  we 


INTRODUCTION  45 

need  not  infer  from  his  language  in  this  place  that  he 
knew  of  the  existence  of  a  forged  letter.  He  may  only 
mean  to  suggest  a  supposititious  case.  However  the 
impulse  may  come — whether  by  spirit,  or  by  word,  or 
by  a  letter  purporting  to  be  written  by  the  Apostle  himself 
—the  Thessalonians  should  not  permit  themselves  to  be 
disturbed  by  it.  The  very  mentioning  of  these  alterna- 
tives implies  that  he  is  dealing  with  conceivable  hypotheses 
rather  than  with  known  facts.  If  we  must  take  his 
words  as  a  statement  of  facts,  it  becomes  necessary  to  do 
so  throughout.  Thus  we  have  to  conclude  that  three 
different  kinds  of  influences  were  at  work — represented  by 
(1)  'spirit,5  (2)  'word,'  (3)  'a  letter.'  But  the  alternative 
form  of  the  sentence  with  the  conjunction  'or'  excludes 
that  interpretation.  And  yet  the  phrase  certainly  implies 
the  possibility  of  a  forgery,  if  not  the  probability  of  it. 
This  is  sufficiently  remarkable.  Who  could  be  forging 
a  letter  in  the  Apostle's  name  so  soon  after  he  had  been 
at  Thessalonica  ?  What  could  induce  any  one  to  do  so 
merely  in  order  to  lead  the  readers  to  believe  in  the 
immediate  coming  of  Christ  ?  This  is  very  strange.  We 
can  only  conclude  that  there  were  cross  currents  and 
various  movements  in  the  early  church  of  which  we  have 
no  knowledge.  Anyhow  the  statement  lies  before  us  in 
our  Epistle.  Now  if  Paul  did  not  write  it,  somebody  else 
must  have  done  so.  What  could  have  induced  such 
a  person  to  have  gratuitously  cumbered  his  pages  with 
words  that  would  only  add  to  the  difficulty  of  passing  off 
his  production  as  a  genuine  apostolic  writing?  It  may 
be  said  that  he  wanted  to  discredit  1  Thessalonians, 
while  himself  setting  out  a  different  idea  of  the  Second 
Advent  from  that  in  the  earlier  Epistle.  But  surely 
if  this  were  his  object  he  would  have  stated  it  more 
explicitly. 

Now  let  us  turn  to  the  concluding  authentication, *  The 
salutation  of  me  Paul  with  mine  own  hand,  which  is  the 
token  in  every  epistle  :  so  I  write '  (iii.  17).    It  is  said  that 


46  II  THESSALONIANS 

this  expression  reveals  a  suspicious  anxiety  on  the  part 
of  the  writer  to  have  the  Epistle  accepted  as  a  genuine 
work  of  Paul.  Would  the  Apostle  need  to  say  this  ? 
The  sentence  must  be  read  in  the  light  of  that  previously 
considered.  If  Paul  knew  of  the  existence  of  a  forged 
letter,  or  if  he  even  suspected  the  possibility  of  such 
a  thing,  he  would  naturally  wish  to  authenticate  a  genuine 
letter  beyond  the  possibility  of  mistake.  Thus  the  two 
passages  throw  light  on  one  another  and  support  each 
other's  genuineness.  If  the  Epistle  is  not  genuine,  this 
concluding  statement  with  its  pretended  token  is  nothing 
less  than  a  barefaced  falsehood  of  the  most  inexcusable 
character.  '  Pseudonymity '  is  not  the  word  to  apply  here. 
It  is  a  case  of  downright  forgery,  and  that  with  a  daring 
lie  added  to  give  it  credence.  Is  it  possible  that  anybody 
who  could  write  the  lofty  moral  and  spiritual  sentences 
contained  in  this  Epistle  could  be  guilty  of  such  wicked- 
ness ?  A  person  of  such  a  sinister  character  would  not 
trouble  himself  to  commit  forgery  in  order  to  convey  such 
teaching  as  we  have  here.  He  would  be  incapable  of 
giving  the  teaching  and  he  could  not  be  credited  with 
a  desire  to  do  so.  The  case  is  entirely  different  from  that 
of  the  common  practice  of  apocalyptic  and  other  writers 
in  affixing  the  name  of  some  great  personage  to  their  own 
works— as  for  instance  in  the  case  of  the  so-called  Apoc- 
alypse of  E?ioch.  In  such  cases  there  is  no  solemn 
authentication,  no  plain  declaration  that  the  document  is 
a  letter  coming  with  the  authorizing  mark  of  the  person 
whose  name  is  attached  to  it. 

But,  it  is  said,  the  phrase  '  every  epistle '  is  inappropri- 
ate at  this  early  time,  in  what  appears  as  only  the  second 
of  the  writer's  letters,  since  it  implies  the  existence  of 
a  number  of  epistles.  We  must  remember,  however,  that 
we  have  no  proof  that  our  thirteen  Pauline  Epistles  are  all 
the  letters  the  Apostle  ever  wrote.  Did  he  never  write 
any  letters  during  all  those  eighteen  years  of  Christian  life 
and  work  that  preceded  the  sending  of  our  two  Thessa- 


INTRODUCTION  47 

Ionian  Epistles  ?  We  have  references,  apparently,  to  more 
than  one  lost  epistle.  Besides,  in  writing  here  Paul  states 
a  rule  of  his  correspondence  of  which  he  desires  his 
readers  to  take  notice.  He  does  not  say  how  often  it  has 
been  applied  in  the  past.  It  is  for  universal  application, 
and  this  should  be  noticed  in  the  present  instance  and  for 
the  future.  That  is  really  all  that  his  words  mean.  In 
point  of  fact  the  Apostle  did  authenticate  his  letters  in  the 
way  he  here  describes.  We  have  several  clear  examples, 
e.  g.  '  The  salutation  of  me  Paul  with  mine  own  hand ' 
(1  Cor.  xvi.  21) ;  '  See  with  how  large  letters  I  have  written 
unto  you  with  mine  own  hand'  (Gal.  vi.  11);  'The 
salutation  of  me  Paul  with  mine  own  hand '  (Col.  iv.  18) ; 
'  I  Paul  write  it  with  mine  own  hand'  (Philem.  19).  We 
know  that  at  a  later  time  the  Apostle's  footsteps  were 
dogged  bymalignant  enemies  who  would  spare  no  means  of 
thwarting  his  plans  and  hindering  his  work.  We  do  not 
know  how  far  suspicion  and  antagonism  had  gone  already, 
but  these  cases  of  authentication  shew  that  Paul  did 
find  it  necessary  to  guard  against  the  palming  off  of 
forged  documents  under  his  name. 

4.  In  the  last  place  there  are  phrases  and  expressions 
not  in  accordance  with  what  we  know  from  his  undoubt- 
ed writings  to  be  Paul's  literary  style.  This  question  can 
only  be  thoroughly  examined  by  means  of  a  discussion 
of  the  Greek  terms  which  would  be  out  of  place  here. 
Two  points  may  be  noticed,  however.  Thus  twice  we 
read,  '  we  are  bound  to  give  thanks  to  God5  (i.  3,  ii.  13), 
whereas  in  1  Thessalonians,  instead  of  this  expression, 
we  have  twice  simply,  f  we  give  thanks  to  God,'  or  '  we 
thank  God'  (1  Thess.  i.  2,  ii.  13).  Then  this. Epistle  is 
characterized  by  a  frequent  use  of  the  term  'the  Lord' 
for  God,  which  elsewhere  Paul  is  not  accustomed  to  employ, 
excepting  in  citations  from  the  Old  Testament.  Thus 
we  have  'the  Lord  of  peace'  (2  Thess.  iii.  16),  instead  of 
{ the  God  of  peace '  (1  Thess.  v.  23) ;  '  beloved  of  the  Lord ' 
(2  Thess.  ii.  13),  instead  of  beloved  of  God'  (1  Thess.  i.  4) ; 


48  II  THESSALONIANS 

'the  Lord  is  faithful'  (2  Thess.  iii.  3)  corresponding  to 
1  faithful  is  he  that  calleth  you '  (1  Thess.  v.  24) ;  •  the  Lord 
direct  your  hearts '  (2  Thess.  iii.  5),  which  we  may  com- 
pare with  the  sentence,  '  Now  may  our  God  and  Father 
himself,  and  our  Lord  Jesus,  direct  our  way  unto  you' 
(1  Thess.  iii.  11).  Such  differences  may  be  accounted  for 
by  a  temporary  change  in  habits  of  language,  perhaps 
under  the  influence  of  some  book  that  is  being  read  at 
the  time  or  some  person  with  whom  the  writer  is  thrown 
into  contact.  If  Paul  had  been  consulting  the  Old 
Testament  prophecies  about  'the  day  of  the  Lord'  in 
view  of  a  letter  which  was  especially  designed  to  deal 
with  that  subject  he  may  have  caught  the  prophet's 
phrase.  Or  we  may  account  for  the  change  in  another 
way.  Possibly  Paul  employed  a  fresh  amanuensis  for 
the  Second  Epistle.  We  do  not  know  what  latitude  he 
allowed  his  literary  assistants.  It  may  be  that  certain 
variations  of  style  came  in  at  their  instigation.  At  all 
events,  it  will  never  do  to  urge  these  small  points  as  dis- 
proofs of  the  genuineness  of  the  Epistle  in  face  of  the  very 
powerful  evidence  we  have  in  its  favour.  On  the  whole, 
therefore,  in  spite  of  all  that  has  been  brought  forward 
on  the  other  side,  there  seems  good  reason  for  resting 
assured  that  we  have  here  a  true,  original  work  of  the 
Apostle  Paul. 

The  Objects  of  the  Epistle. 

The  Apostle's  main  purpose  in  writing  this  Epistle  will 
be  apparent  from  the  considerations  we  have  been  just 
looking  at.  It  is  manifest,  too,  in  the  Epistle  itself.  Like 
the  earlier  Epistle  this  short  missive  is  especially  concerned 
with  our  Lord's  Second  Advent.  But  there  is  a  difference 
of  standpoint  in  regarding  it — as  we  have  seen  already. 
In  1  Thessalonians  Paul  has  to  comfort  his  readers  with 
regard  to  friends  whom  they  have  lost  by  death,  assur- 
ing them  that  these  departed  friends  will  not  miss  the 


INTRODUCTION  49 

privilege  of  taking  part  in  the  great  event.  Now  he  has 
to  warn  his  readers  against  the  expectation  of  its  immedi- 
ate occurrence.  How  this  expectation  has  been  engendered 
the  Apostle  does  not  say ;  apparently  he  does  not  know. 
It  may  have  been  by  means  of  what  was  taken  for  an 
inspired  utterance  of  prophecy  in  the  church ;  possibly 
some  saying,  attributed  to  Paul  or  one  of  the  apostles, 
perhaps  even  said  to  have  been  uttered  by  Jesus  Christ 
during  his  life  on  earth,  has  been  conveyed  to  Thessalonica 
and  appealed  to  as  an  announcement  of  the  speedy 
coming  of  Christ ;  or,  lastly,  Paul  supposes  it  possible  that 
the  authority  is  some  letter  purporting  to  have  emanated 
from  him — though,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  he  has  written  no 
such  letter.  Be  that  as  it  may — the  Apostle  leaves  the 
question  open,  not  caring  how  it  might  be  settled — the 
notion  having  spread  abroad  in  the  church  and  being 
bolstered  up  by  some  shew  of  authority,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  save  the  Thessalonians  from  their  delusion, 
which  has  brought  the  church  into  a  state  of  agitation 
that  is  very  inimical  to  sober  work  and  the  healthy 
development  of  the  graces  of  Christianity.  A  feverish 
anxiety  about  the  awful  Apocalypse  is  throwing  all  other 
subjects  into  the  shade.  Men  cannot  even  give  attention 
to  their  daily  tasks.  This  mischievous  condition  of 
affairs  must  be  corrected.  For  one  thing,  when  the 
disappointment  comes,  as  come  it  must,  since  the  eager 
anticipation  is  founded  on  a  delusion,  there  will  be  a 
terrible  reaction,  in  which  faith  itself  will  be  imperilled. 
This  is  always  the  penalty  of  fanaticism.  While  it  lasts  it 
sweeps  all  before  it  with  a  flood  of  emotion  ;  but  when 
it  is  disappointed  and  disconcerted  the  ebb  of  the  tide 
leaves  a  dreary  and  desolate  region  strewn  with  wrecked 
hopes.  There  is  no  collapse  so  desperate  as  that  of 
inflated  enthusiasm  when  the  bubble  is  pricked.  From 
this  miserable  end  to  their  highly  wrought  anticipations 
Paul  desires  to  save  his  readers  by  leading  them  to 
more  sober  ways  of  thinking.  But  this  is  not  all.  Even 
(rj)  E 


5o  II  THESSALONIANS 

during  the  present  state  of  elation  mischief  is  brewing. 
Such  a  condition  of  mind  is  morbid.  Total  absorption 
in  the  contemplation  of  a  vain  vision  is  making  idle 
dreamers  of  its  victims.  Therefore,  after  correcting  the 
noxious  delusion,  Paul  will  come  down  to  the  considera- 
tion of  very  mundane  duties  and  urge  a  diligent  attention 
to  them. 

The  process  by  which  the  Apostle  sets  to  work  to 
correct  the  Thessalonian  error  is  very  remarkable.  It 
must  have  been  quite  startling  to  his  readers.  Though 
he  appeals  to  their  memory  of  what  he  had  said  when 
with  them,  this  could  not  have  been  as  explicit  as  the 
statements  he  now  proceeds  to  set  forth  with  some  fullness 
of  detail.  He  uses  the  veil  of  figurative  language  because 
he  cannot  tell  but  that  his  letter  may  be  intercepted 
and  fall  into  unfriendly  hands  before  reaching  its  destina- 
tion in  the  north.  But,  difficult  as  it  is  for  us  to  thread 
our  way  through  the  maze  of  vague  hints,  since  the  key 
is  lost,  no  doubt  the  first  readers  of  the  Epistle  would 
understand  perfectly  well  what  was  meant.  Three 
persons,  or  powers,  are  to  be  recognized — one  of  evil 
influence — *  the  man  of  sin, '  '  the  mystery  of  iniquity  ' ; 
the  second  keeping  this  back  and  preventing  it  from 
breaking  out  to  effect  its  malignant  purpose  ;  the  third, 
the  might  that  is  to  master  and  overthrow  the  dark  and 
dreadful  power  after  its  great  outburst.  It  is  now 
generally  agreed  that  the  evil  power  is  Judaism,  or  the 
Jews  regarded  as  one  in  their  united  opposition  to  the 
Christians;  and  that  the  restraining  influence  is  the 
Roman  government,  which  in  maintaining  justice  and 
keeping  order  prevented  the  Jews  from  persecuting  the 
Christians.  The  third  influence  is  Christ  coming  in  his 
power  and  glory,  no  symbolism  here  disguising  the  pro- 
phecy. Thus  the  Apostle  wishes  the  Thessalonians  to 
understand  that  the  Jews,  now  prevented  by  Rome  from 
carrying  out  their  will  against  the  Christians,  will  at  some 
subsequent   time  be  released  from  that  restraint;    but 


INTRODUCTION  51 

when  they  are  about  to  do  their  worst  Christ  will  come 
and  destroy  their  power.  As  this  has  not  yet  happened 
he  cannot  be  coming  immediately.  Therefore  the  Thes- 
salonians  are  to  see  that  their  too  eager  anticipation  of 
that  event  is  a  mistake. 

But,  it  will  be  said,  after  all  was  not  Paul  himself 
labouring  under  almost  as  great  a  delusion  as  that  from 
which  he  wished  to  liberate  his  readers  ?  Did  the  removal 
of  the  power  of  Rome  ever  occur  to  give  Judaism  an 
opportunity  for  the  more  violent  persecution  of  Chris- 
tianity? Evidently  Paul  was  expecting  this  to  happen 
comparatively  soon,  though  not  so  speedily  as  the  Thessa- 
lonians  imagined ;  and  his  anticipation  of  the  coming  of 
Christ  to  overthrow  the  power  of  wickedness  was  not 
satisfied  with  something  that  would  not  happen  till  2,000 
years  had  passed  away.  We  have  seen  that  Paul 
evidently  shared  the  universal  belief  of  the  early  church, 
that  Christ  would  return  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
generation  of  Christians  then  on  earth.  But  he  never 
made  this  a  part  of  his  gospel  message.  What  he  did 
preach  with  emphasis  in  this  connexion  was  that  the 
living,  risen  Christ  would  certainly  return  in  judgement 
and  for  the  deliverance  of  his  people.  Further,  when  he 
saw  people  expecting  the  great  event  to  happen  immedi- 
ately he  declared  that  this  could  not  be.  But  he  never 
made  it  part  of  his  message  to  announce  the  Second 
Advent  as  an  event  to  happen  during  his  own  lifetime. 
He  may  have  expected  this ;  but  that  is  another  matter. 
The  most  thoroughgoing  champion  of  Paul  is  not  called 
upon  to  maintain  the  doctrine  of  a  sort  of  papal  in- 
fallibility for  his  hero.  Fallibility  in  regard  to  many  ideas 
which  do  not  enter  into  the  Apostle's  message  will  not 
set  the  message  aside. 

While  the  subject  just  discussed  evidently  afforded  the 
main  reason  for  the  dispatch  of  this  short  letter,  the 
opportunity  was  seized  by  the  Apostle  to  treat  of  other 
subjects   with  which    he  was    deeply  concerned    when 

E  2 


52  II  THESSALONIANS 

thinking  of  his  friends  at  Thessalonica.  They  were  still 
suffering  from  persecution ;  and  the  Apostle  wished  to 
cheer  and  encourage  them  in  the  midst  of  their  troubles. 
It  was  hard  that  this  should  be  their  experience  so  shortly 
after  the  formation  of  the  church ;  but  it  was  wonderful 
that  the  church  should  have  been  so  firm  in  faith  and 
so  thoroughly  consolidated  as  to  be  able  to  withstand 
the  long-continued  trial.  Only  a  few  months  before  its 
members  were  heathens  like  their  neighbours  ;  now  they 
are  Christians  under  persecution  shewing  the  spirit  of 
martyrs.  Here  is  striking  testimony  to  the  success  of 
the  Apostle's  missionary  efforts  and  to  the  power  of  that 
new  life  which  it  had  brought.  This  is  the  subject  with 
which  the  Epistle  opens.  Then,  after  dealing  with  the 
delusion  about  the  Second  Advent,  it  closes  with  some 
practical  directions  concerning  the  conduct  of  certain 
disorderly  members  of  the  church.  These  people  are 
refusing  to  work,  and  imposing  on  the  kindness  of  the 
brethren,  so  as  to  obtain  a  livelihood  by  drawing  from  the 
common  funds  provided  for  the  poor  and  needy.  Paul 
again  reminds  his  readers— as  he  had  done  in  the  earlier 
epistle— that  he  had  supported  himself  by  his  own  manual 
labour  when  he  was  staying  at  Thessalonica.  That  was 
an  example  which  he  expected  to  be  followed.  The  lazy 
busybodies  must  not  be  allowed  to  feed  on  the  gifts  of  the 
charitable.  The  proper  thing  to  do  is  to  cease  to  have 
any  communication  with  people  who  behave  so  meanly  ; 
still,  only  for  a  time.  The  Christian  spirit  must  not  fail  in 
the  treatment  of  such  unworthy  members,  even  when  they 
prove  to  be  recalcitrant.  A  man  who  acts  in  the  way 
described  is  not  to  be  treated  as  an  enemy,  but  kindly 
admonished,  with  a  recognition  that  even  he  is  a  brother. 
Such  advice  brings  out  the  affectionate,  merciful,  kindly 
spirit  which  was  in  the  Apostle  and  which  he  wished  to 
see  cultivated  by  the  Thessalonians,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  shews  his  practical  good  sense  and  his  anxiety  for 
the  preservation  of  order  and  the  suppression  of  abuses. 


INTRODUCTION  53 

Date  and  Place  of  Origin. 

The  data  already  discussed  point  pretty  clearly  to  the 
time  and  circumstances  of  the  origin  of  the  Epistle. 
Nevertheless  it  has  been  maintained  that  this  Epistle  was 
written  earlier  than  our  I  Thessalonians.  The  principal 
reason  for  that  view  is  that  it  bears  evidence  of  having 
been  composed  very  shortly  after  the  Apostle's  presence 
among  his  friends,  in  the  newly  organized  church,  and 
his  personal  teaching  of  them.  But,  apart  from  the 
suggestion  that  he  may  have  paid  a  flying  visit  to  Thessa- 
lonica  of  which  we  have  no  notice  in  the  history,  it  should 
be  observed  that  the  Epistles  may  both  have  been  written 
nearly  about  the  same  time,  and  therefore  the  second  of 
them  as  well  as  the  first  but  a  few  months  after  the 
founding  of  the  Macedonian  ch niches.  The  advice, 
'Hold  the  traditions  which  ye  were  taught,  whether  by 
word,  or  by  epistle  of  ours'  (ii.  15),  certainly  implies  that 
the  Thessalonians  had  already  received  some  letter  from 
Paul  when  these  words  were  written.  The  simplest 
explanation  of  them  is  that  the  letter  referred  to  was 
our  first  Epistle.  Then  the  treatment  of  the  Second 
Advent  in  the  two  Epistles  best  suits  the  chronological 
order  commonly  given  to  them.  The  surprise  and  dis- 
appointment at  the  occurrence  of  death  in  the  newly 
formed  ranks  of  the  brotherhood,  discussed  in  1  Thessa- 
lonians, would  be  likely  to  occur  early  in  the  history  of  the 
church,  if  at  all.  On  the  other  hand,  the  misapprehension 
about  the  time  of  the  Second  Advent,  and  the  restless  state 
of  expectancy  referred  to  in  2  Thessalonians,  would  very 
naturally  come  in  at  a  rather  later  period.  We  are  not 
bound  to  insert  any  considerable  interval  between  the  two 
letters.  If  the  reference  to  an  'epistle  as  from  us' 
(2  Thess.  ii.  2)  applied  to  our  1  Thessalonians,  it  would 
require  time  for  the  earlier  letter  to  have  reached  the 
church  and  produced  its  impression,  and  for  news  of  this 
to  have  come  back  to  Paul  before  he  wrote  2  Thessa- 


54  II  THESSALONIANS 

lonians.  That  would  imply  quite  an  appreciable  interval. 
But  if,  as  seems  more  probable  from  the  use  of  the  phrase 
'as  from  us,'  Paul  means  some  other  letter  not  really  his 
own,  though  pretending  to  be  from  him,  the  existence  of 
which  he  knows,  or  which  he  imagines  may  have  been 
written,  this  argument  falls  to  the  ground.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  the  news  of  the  state  of  the  church,:  which 
called  forth  our  Epistle,  reached  the  Apostle  very  soon 
after  the  dispatch  of  the  first  Epistle.  In  that  case  the 
second  may  have  followed  close  behind  it.  The  same 
two  companion  missionaries,  Silvanus  and  Timothy,  are 
associated  with  the  Apostle  in  both  Epistles.  As  I  Thessa- 
lonians  was  written  from  Corinth,  early  in  Paul's  long 
residence  in  that  city,  probably  this  second  Epistle  was  also 
dispatched  from  the  same  place,  and  perhaps  also  during 
the  early  part  of  the  Apostle's  time  there.  Thus  we  have 
the  year  a.d.  53,  or  at  latest  54,  according  to  the  accepted 
chronology,  for  the  probable  date  of  our  Epistle. 


Characteristics. 

The  same  elementary  nature  of  the  ideas  and  practical 
tone  of  the  writing,  which  were  seen  in  the  earlier  Epistle, 
is  found  in  this  shorter  document.  There  are  no  argu- 
ments such  as  we  meet  with  in  Romans  and  Galatians, 
and  very  little  is  said  about  the  doctrinal  side  of  Christi- 
anity, that  little  coming  in  by  way  of  allusion  rather  than 
in  the  form  of  direct  statements.  The  thought  of  God  is 
prominent  here,  as  it  was  in  1  Thessalonians,  and  in  a 
way  that  can  be  well  appreciated  when  we  recollect  that 
the  readers  had  but  recently  been  rescued  from  poly- 
theism and  idolatry  and  brought  into  the  knowledge  of 
the  one  spiritual  God.  The  '  man  of  sin's '  great  crime  is 
that  he  f  exalteth  himself  against  all  that  is  called  God,' 
'  sitteth  in  the  temple  of  God,'  '  setting  himself  forth  as 
God.'  The  enemies  'know  not  God.'  It  is  the  privilege 
of  the  Christians  to  be  under  the  blessing  of  God,  whom 


INTRODUCTION  55 

they  know  as  their  Father  —  'the  Father'  and  'our 
Father.'  Jesus  Christ  is  often  referred  to  in  close  rela- 
tion with  God.  Thus  the  opening  salutation  unites  •  God 
the  Father '  with  '  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ '  as  the  source  of 
grace  and  peace  (i.  2) ;  again,  later,  grace  is  attributed  in 
common  to  God  and  Christ  (verse  12).  'The  Spirit,'  as 
the  source  of  sanctification,  is  mentioned  in  association 
with  'God'  and  'our  Lord  Jesus  Christ'  (ii.  13);  but 
there  is  no  elaboration  of  statement  concerning  the 
mutual  relation  of  the  three.  The  Epistle  contains  no 
reference  to  the  death  or  resurrection  of  Christ,  nor  does 
it  mention  justification,  though  it  lays  stress  on  the  value 
of  faith  (i.  3  :  '  We  are  bound  to  give  thanks  to  God 
alway  for  you,  brethren,  even  as  it  is  meet,  for  that  your 
faith  groweth  exceedingly,'  &c).  On  the  other  hand, 
prominence  is  given  to  the  exaltation  of  Christ  and  the 
great  things  he  will  do  when  the  day  of  his  manifestation 
has  come.  The  Second  Advent  entirely  overshadows 
the  First  Advent,  though  the  frequent  use  of  the  human 
name  '  Jesus '  implies  the  earthly  ministry  of  our  Lord. 

The  same  thankful  spirit  that  was  manifested  in  the 
earlier  writing  appears  here  also.  The  Apostle  has  but 
little  fault  to  find  with  his  Macedonian  friends,  and  much 
good  progress  and  steadfastness  under  trial  for  which  to 
offer  them  congratulations  and  to  give  thanks  to  God.  The 
persecutions  they  are  enduring  call  out  his  sympathy, 
together  with  his  admiration  for  their  fidelity. 

But  one  marked  change  may  be  noticed  in  the  tone  of 
the  Apostle's  mind.  He  is  more  stern  and  severe  in  his 
denunciation  of  the  opponents  of  the  gospel.  Christ  will 
come  '  in  flaming  fire,  rendering  vengeance  to  them  that 
know  not  God,  and  to  them  that  obey  not  the  gospel  of 
our  Lord  Jesus '  (i.  8).  These  people  are  to  '  suffer  punish- 
ment, even  eternal  destruction  from  the  face  of  the 
Lord, '  &c.  '  The  Lord  Jesus  shall  slay '  '  the  lawless  one ' 
'  with  the  breath  of  his  mouth.'  It  looks  as  though  the 
continuance  of  the  opposition  and  the  growing  spite  of  the 


56  II  THESSALONIANS 

opponents  had  roused  the  Apostle's  indignation  and 
moved  him  to  utter  language  of  an  unusually  drastic 
nature.  In  this  Epistle,  perhaps  more  than  in  any  other, 
Paul  approaches  the  tone  and  temper  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets. 

At  the  same  time  the  warm  uffectionateness  of  the 
Apostle  comes  out  in  this  short  letter,  as  in  everything 
he  wrote.  It  is  deeply  rooted  in  his  nature.  A  man  of 
large-hearted  kindliness,  he  is  continually  overflowing  with 
sympathy  and  affection.  Even  his  rebukes  are  meant  in 
love.  After  describing  the  treatment  to  be  meted  out  to 
the  tiresome,  idle  busybody,  he  is  careful  to  add,  'and  yet 
count  him  not  as  an  enemy,  but  admonish  him  as  a 
brother.'     That  is  Paul  writing  from  the  heart. 


CONTENTS   OF  THE    EPISTLE 

Salutation,  i.  i,  2. 

Paul,  associating  with  himself  his  two  travelling  com- 
panions, Silvanus  and  Timothy,  as  in  the  previous  Epistle, 
addresses  the  divinely  ordered  church  of  the  Thessalonians 
and  wishes  them  grace  and  peace  from  God  and  Christ. 

Congratulations  for  fidelity  under  difficulties,  i.  3-12. 

According  to  his  custom  Paul  begins  by  expressing  his 
thankfulness  for  the  good  things  he  has  heard  about 
his  friends,  their  faith  and  love,  and  especially  their 
patience  under  persecution.  The  enemies  who  work  this 
mischief  will  certainly  suffer  severe  punishment.  Mean- 
while the  Apostle  prays  for  the  highest  blessings  to  come 
to  the  church,  that  the  Lord  Jesus  may  be  glorified  in 
them. 

The  mistake  about  the  Parousia,  11.  1-1& 

The  readers  are  warned  against  being  disturbed  by  the 
delusion  of  anticipating  the  immediate  coming  of  Christ. 
There  must  be  a  falling  away  first  and  the  manifestation 
of  '  the  man  of  sin,'  who  is  at  present  under  restraint. 
When  the  restraining  influence  is  removed,  the  evil  power 


INTRODUCTION  57 

will  break  out,  only  to  be  destroyed  by  Christ,  who  will 
then  appear.     Meanwhile  those  who  are  under  the  influence 
of  this  mysterious  evil  power  are  condemned  to  believe 
a  lie. 
Further  thanksgiving  and  exhortation,  ii.  13-17. 

Paul  cannot  but  express  his  thankfulness  for  the  Divine 
call  of  the  Thessalonians.  He  exhorts  them  to  steadfastness, 
and  prays  that  they  may  be  cheered  and  strengthened. 

Prayer  and  Confidence,  hi.  1-5. 

The  Apostle  asks  for  his  readers'  prayers  that  his 
missionary  work  may  be  fruitful  and  that  he  may  be 
delivered  from  his  opponents.  He  has  great  confidence 
in  them,  and  prays  that  they  may  be  blessed  with  love  and 
patience. 

Admonition  against  disorderly  conduct,  iii.  6-15. 

The  church  should  withdraw  from  disorderly  brethren 
who  refuse  to  work  for  their  own  living  and  behave  as 
idle  busybodies.  Paul  had  worked  hard  for  his  own  living 
when  at  Thessalonica,  and  they  should  do  the  same. 
Anybody  who  will  not  heed  this  advice  should  be  shunned, 
but  still  admonished  kindly  as  an  erring  brother. 

Benediction  and  Salutation,  iii.  16-18. 

The  Apostle  prays  for  peace  and  the  Lord's  presence 
with  his  readers.  He  concludes  with  his  invariable  token, 
a  salutation  in  his  own  handwriting,  and  so  prays  that 
the  grace  of  Christ  may  be  with  them. 


GALATIANS 

Who  were  the  Galatians? 

Galatia  proper  was  a  compact  district  towards  the 
north  of  Asia  Minor,  about  200  miles  long  from  east  to 
west,  and  100  miles  wide,  dreary  and  monotonous,  and 
afflicted  with  a  severe  winter  climate.  Its  name  was  de- 
rived from  the  Gauls,  warrior  tribes  who  migrated  from 
Western  Europe  in  the  third  century  and  conquered  the 
native  Phrygian  population.  They  came  as  savages  from 
the  woods,  and  at  first  lived  a  nomadic  life  with  iheir 
flocks  and  herds,  making  the  original  population  work 
for  them  in  the  fields  as  serfs.  But,  as  was  inevitable, 
in  course  of  time  the  two  races  mixed.  The  advancing 
tide  of  Roman  conquest  absorbed  the  kingdom  of  Galatia ; 
according  to  the  custom  and  policy  of  the  great  victors 
with  their  genius  for  government,  first  under  a  native 
tributary  king  and  then  as  an  integral  part  of  the  empire, 
with  Ancyra,  Tavium,  and  Pessinus  for  its  chief  cities. 
This  was  the  condition  in  which  it  was  to  be  found  at 
the  time  of  Paul's  journeys  in  Asia  Minor. 

Now  until  recently  it  has  been  generally  held  that 
Galatia  proper  was  the  region  where  the  Apostle  had 
planted  the  churches  to  which  our  Epistle  was  directed, 
and  that  the  Galatians  therein  addressed  were  the 
descendants  of  the  settlers  from  Gaul.  This  view  is  still 
maintained  in  Germany  by  some  scholars,  such  as  Weiss, 
Lipsius,  and  Sieffert.  Under  the  powerful  influence  of 
Bishop  Lightfoot  it  came  to  be  almost  universally  accepted 
in  England.  Lightfoot  drew  attention  to  their  Celtic 
sensuousness  as  inclining  Paul's  correspondents  to  accept 
the  external  and  ritual  elements  of  Judaism,  for  doing 
which  the  Apostle  so  sternly  rebukes  them,  and  again, 


INTRODUCTION  59 

the  Celtic  fickleness  to  which  Paul  is  supposed  to  refer  in 
his  expostulations  when  he  writes, '  I  marvel  that  ye  are 
so  quickly  removing  from  him  that  called  you  in  the 
grace  of  Christ  unto  a  different  gospel '  (i.  6),  and  '  O 
foolish  Galatians,  who  did  bewitch  you  ?  &c. '  (iii.  1.) 

But  another  view  that  has  been  maintained  by  Renan, 
Hausrath,  Weizsacker,  Pfleiderer,  Zahn,  and  other  scholars 
on  the  Continent,  is  now  being  widely  accepted  in  Great 
Britain  owing  to  the  arguments  of  Professor  Ramsay,  the 
greatest  authority  on  the  geography  and  antiquities  of 
Asia  Minor.  In  New  Testament  times  the  title  Galatia 
was  applied  by  the  Romans  to  a  province  which  included 
the  old  Gallic  kingdom  and  recognized  Ancyra  as  its 
capital,  but  also  extended  further  south  into  great  parts 
of  Phrygia,  Isauria,  Pisidia,  and  Lycaonia ;  and  thus  in- 
cluded Antioch,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe,  the  cities  in 
which  Paul  planted  churches  during  what  we  call  his 
first  missionary  journey.  If  we  can  accept  this  theory 
it  will  throw  a  flood  of  light  on  the  origin  and  early 
history  of  the  churches  addressed  in  our  Epistle.  In- 
stead of  the  obscure  people  in  the  north,  of  whose  con- 
version and  early  Christian  history  we  know  absolutely 
nothing  beyond  what  might  be  gathered  from  the  Epistle 
itself,  if  it  had  been  directed  to  them,  we  have  com- 
munities that  are  well  known  to  us  from  the  full  and 
graphic  narrative  in  Acts.  We  must  not  let  this  differ- 
ence weigh  with  us  in  determining  the  question  between 
the  claims  of  the  two  Galatias;  but  no  one  can  deny 
that  it  adds  zest  to  the  inquiry  and  makes  the  result 
one  of  more  than  merely  geographical  interest.  Let  us 
then  look  at  the  merits  of  the  case. 

1.  The  Apostle's  habitual  style.  We  find  that  Paul 
invariably  wrote  of  the  places  he  visited  under  the  names 
of  the  Roman  provinces  to  which  they  belonged.  Thus  we 
have  Asia,  Achaia,  and  Macedonia  mentioned  frequently 
in  his  Epistles.  The  latter  name  is  particularly  striking. 
In    point  of  fact   Philippi  and  Thessalonica  were  not 


6o  GALATIANS 

Macedonian  cities.  The  indigenous  race  where  these 
cities  stood  was  Thracian,  and  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Macedon  lay  further  to  the  north-west.  But  a  Roman 
citizen  himself,  and  greatly  interested  in  the  imperial 
idea,  Paul  would  not  commit  the  barbarism  of  calling 
the  inhabitants  of  these  places  Thracians ;  he  always 
addressed  them  as  Macedonians.  It  is  not  to  be  denied 
that  if  he  were  addressing  the  people  of  North  Galatia  he 
would  call  them  Galatians,  for  they  belonged  to  the  same 
province  as  the  inhabitants  of  South  Galatia.  But  it  is 
equally  certain  that  if  he  were  writing  to  the  people  of 
the  south  part  of  the  province,  though  these  were  not  of 
Gallic  descent,  and  therefore  ethnologically  not  Galatian, 
he  would  not  use  any  local  names,  but,  according  to  his 
invariable  custom,  would  address  them  by  the  title  of 
their  province  in  the  Roman  Empire,  and  therefore  call 
them  '  Galatians.' 

Then  there  are  two  or  three  special  reasons  why  he 
would  not  depart  from  his  settled  habit  in  this  place, 
why  here  in  particular — if  he  were  writing  to  the  four 
cities— he  would  use  the  Roman  provincial  title.  In  the 
first  place,  he  was  addressing  a  group  of  churches  drawn 
from  different  primitive  races.  Some  were  Phrygians, 
others  were  Lycaonians.  There  was  no  one  original 
local  name  to  include  all  the  churches.  It  would  have 
been  clumsy  to  specify  the  racial  differences  or  the  towns 
in  each  case  when  a  personal  appeal  was  made.  The 
quick,  vehement  style  of  the  Epistle  would  not  allow 
of  descending  to  details  in  this  way.  If  a  common  name 
to  cover  all  the  four  churches  could  be  found,  certainly 
it  would  be  most  convenient  to  use  it.  Seeing  that  in 
all  other  cases  Paul  used  the  name  of  the  Roman  province 
concerned,  he  would  have  that  name  ready  to  hand  in 
this  case,  and  it  would  be  as  appropriate  and  serviceable 
as  it  would  be  in  accordance  with  his  favourite  view  of 
the  places  he  passed  through,  which  consisted  of  large 
divisions  of  the  Roman  Empire. 


INTRODUCTION  61 

Secondly,  one  of  the  local  names  was  not  particularly 
flattering.  The  title  Phrygian  was  used  with  some 
contempt  by  those  to  whom  it  did  not  apply.  In  the 
dramatists  it  stands  for  a  drunken  slave.  If  the  only 
name  we  had  for  a  Londoner  were  '  Cockney,'  or  for  an 
inhabitant  of  New  York  'Yankee,'  when  we  wished  to 
speak  courteously  we  should  avoid  the  local  title  and 
seek  for  some  more  dignified  mode  of  address.  This 
would  be  more  especially  the  case  where  people  of 
different  districts  and  names  were  included  together. 
The  people  of  Lycaonia  would  resent  the  inclusion  of 
their  cities  under  the  name  Phrygian,  or  the  association  of 
them  with  Phrygia  in  a  common  appeal.  Paul,  who  was 
always  courteous  and  anxious  to  be  conciliatory,  would 
not  commit  so  complete  a  blunder  in  tact  as  to  alienate 
his  readers,  at  the  outset,  by  employing  what  they  might 
think  an  offensive  title  in  addressing  them. 

Thirdly,  the  members  of  the  Christian  churches  would 
be  townsfolk,  and  for  the  most  part  the  younger  and 
more  intelligent  persons  in  the  community,  at  all  events 
the  more  liberal-minded,  such  as  were  open  to  the  recep- 
tion of  new,  startling  ideas.  The  country  folk — '  pagans ' 
or  peasants,  * heathen '  or  heath  men—wzre.  long  the 
most  backward  to  adopt  the  Christian  faith.  It  must  have 
happened  that  in  the  towns  the  conservative,  old-fashioned 
people  would  have  no  patience  with  the  preachers  of 
a  new  religion,  while  eager,  open-minded  young  souls 
would  be  more  inclined  to  receive  it.  But  now  these  latter 
would  also  be  the  people  most  influenced  by  the  new 
ideas  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Thus  it  would  be  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Christian  churches  in  particular  who  would 
like  to  be  addressed  as  members  of  the  Empire  also, 
and  so  would  welcome  the  Roman  name  of  their  pro- 
vince in  a  letter  addressed  to  them. 

It  may  be  remarked,  as  a  slight  confirmation  of  this 
question  of  usage,  that  I  Peter  is  addressed  to  sojourners 
of  the  dispersion  in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and 


62  GALATIANS 

Bithynia  (i  Pet.  i.  l).  Now  the  last  three  of  these  names 
undoubtedly  designate  Roman  provinces  \  It  is  probable 
therefore  that  the  name  '  Galatia '  does  also.  We  cannot 
argue  certainly  from  Peter's  language  to  Paul's.  But 
i  Peter  is  remarkably  Pauline  in  style  and  phrase. 

2.  The  silence  of  Acts.  We  have  a  full  account  of 
the  planting  of  the  South  Galatian  churches,  but  no 
description  of  the  origin  of  churches  in  North  Galatia.  It 
is  true  that  Luke  does  not,  by  any  means,  include  a  com- 
plete itinerary  of  Paul's  journeys  in  his  history,  for  the 
remarkable  catalogue  of  experiences  that  the  Apostle 
gives  in  2  Cor.  xii.  contains  several  items  which  do 
not  find  a  place  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  It  must  be 
allowed  therefore  that  Paul  might  have  visited  North 
Galatia,  and  yet  Luke  might  not  have  described  his 
missionary  tour  in  that  remote  region.  He  mentions 
two  visits  to  Galatia  (Acts  xvi.  6 ;  xviii.  23).  If  he 
means  North  Galatia,  the  former  of  these  references 
may  be  the  occasion  of  evangelizing  that  district.  But 
he  gives  no  details,  and  yet  the  first  visit  immediately 
preceded  Paul's  meeting  with  Luke  at  Troas.  If  that 
were  the  occasion  of  the  founding  of  the  Galatian  churches, 
Paul  would  be  full  of  it  at  the  moment  of  meeting  Luke. 
Our  Epistle  shews  how  enthusiastic  his  reception  had 
been,  and  how  promising  the  conversion  of  the  Galatians. 
How  then  shall  we  account  for  Luke's  curt  treatment 
of  the  whole  matter  in  Acts  ?  It  is  much  more  easy 
to  explain  this  slight  mention  of  the  district  through 
which  Paul  was  travelling,  if  it  were  an  old  mission-field 
which  he  was  revisiting,  than  if  he  were  engaged  in 
breaking  up  new  ground  and  founding  new  churches, 
amid  the  scenes  of  enthusiasm  and  with  the  great 
results  that  our  Epistle  testifies  to  in  regard  to  the  origin 
of  the  Galatian  church.     By  itself  this  might  not  amount 


1  Pontus    may    be    an  exception,   but    it  was   constituted  a 
Roman  province  under  Nero. 


INTRODUCTION  63 

to  a  very  strong  argument.  But  following  the  considera- 
tion of  greatest  weight,  that  Paul  invariably  used  the 
names  of  Roman  provinces  when  it  was  possible  to  do  so, 
it  is  more  likely  that  Luke's  full  account  of  the  origin 
of  the  four  churches  in  the  south  refers  to  the  very 
churches  addressed  in  the  Epistle,  than  that  he  said 
nothing  specific  concerning  Paul's  Galatian  churches,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  those  churches  were  up  in  the  north 
at  Ancyra  and  the  other  Celtic  cities. 

5.  The  remoteness  of  North  G-alatia.  The  question 
of  the  locality  to  which  the  Epistle  is  directed  has  usually 
been  studied  from  a  distance,  with  reference  only  to  books 
and  documentary  evidence.  Professor  Ramsay  has  a 
great  advantage  over  his  predecessors  in  the  fact  that  he 
has  examined  it  on  the  ground,  travelling  in  person  over 
the  very  course  that  Paul  is  supposed  to  have  taken. 
The  result  is  a  strong  persuasion  that  this  could  not  have 
lain  in  the  remote  regions  of  North  Galatia.  In  the  first 
place,  that  is  quite  an  outlying  district,  off  the  main 
lines  of  travel  which  the  Apostle  was  in  the  habit  of 
following.  Unless  we  have  good  evidence  to  shew  that 
he  travelled  up  into  these  parts,  the  presumption  is  that 
he  confined  his  ministry  to  the  great  Greek  towns  that  are 
mentioned  in  Acts  and  the  Epistles.  A  deflection  of  his 
course  in  order  to  evangelize  the  Celtic  population  of  an 
obscure  portion  of  the  Roman  Empire  would  be  a  varia- 
tion from  his  regular  mode  of  procedure,  and  therefore 
would  need  to  be  proved  on  evidence  that  is  not  yet 
forthcoming  before  it  could  be  regarded  as  having  taken 
place.  Then  Paul  was  in  the  habit  of  travelling  along 
great  Roman  roads,  the  highways  of  commerce,  or  at 
all  events  main,  well-known  routes.  That  was  the  case 
when  he  visited  the  cities  of  Southern  Galatia.  But  it 
would  not  have  been  so  if  he  had  gone  to  Northern 
Galatia.  In  that  case  he  would  have  had  to  take  a 
very  rough  and  little  frequented  path  over  a  wild 
mountainous  district.     Of  course  it  is  not  to  be  asserted 


64  GALATIANS 

that  the  Apostle  would  have  shrunk  from  the  toil  and 
risk  of  such  a  journey,  liable  as  it  was  to  the  attack  of 
brigands,  if  he  had  seen  good  reason  to  take  it.  But 
the  circumstances  of  his  first  visit  to  Galatia  were  some- 
what peculiar,  as  he  shews  in  his  Epistles.  He  reminds 
his  readers  that  it  was  on  account  of  bodily  illness 
that  he  came  among  them  at  all  ;  for  this  is  apparently 
the  meaning  of  the  phrase,  '  but  ye  know  that  because 
of  an  infirmity  of  the  flesh  I  preached  the  gospel  unto 
you  the  first  time5  (Gal.  iv.  13).  Professor  Ramsay 
conjectures  that  this  illness  may  have  been  a  malarious 
fever  contracted  when  down  on  the  coast  of  the  Levant, 
after  coming  from  Crete,  the  neighbourhood  being 
notoriously  unhealthy  ;  and  he  supposes  that,  in  order 
to  throw  it  off  and  escape  from  the  depressing  and  even 
dangerous  atmosphere  of  the  sea-shore,  the  Apostle 
struck  north  among  the  Balkans  for  the  more  salubrious 
climate  of  the  great  upland  interior  of  Asia  Minor. 
He  further  suggests  that  the  reason  why  Mark  left  him 
at  this  point  and  returned  to  Jerusalem  was  that  this  was 
a  change  of  plan,  and  not  a  part  of  the  tour  contemplated 
by  the  missionaries  when  they  left  Antioch.  The  hy- 
gienic idea  underlying  such  an  explanation  of  Paul's 
movements  may  strike  us  as  rather  modern.  Still  it 
must  be  acknowledged  as  possible.  At  all  events,  since 
sickness  is  given  as  the  reason  for  going  to  Galatia  this 
fact  must  be  reckoned  with  when  we  are  considering  the 
course  of  the  Apostle's  journey.  It  would  not  seem 
likely  that  the  bad  state  of  his  health  would  induce  him 
to  take  the  long  and  arduous  journey  into  North  Galatia, 
and  therefore  this  is  a  point  in  favour  of  the  South 
Galatian  theory.  Professor  Ramsay  considers  that  the 
strange  experience  described  by  Paul  in  2  Cor.  xii. 
refers  to  this  time  and  to  the  illness  then  endured.  The 
'thorn— or  rather  stake— m  the  flesh'  he  takes  to  mean  the 
piercing  agony  of  pain  in  the  head  that  is  one  of  the 
symptoms  of  malarial  fever.     Certainly  such  a  distressful 


INTRODUCTION  65 

condition  was  not  in  itself  likely  to  induce  the  Apostle 
to  undertake  what  would  have  been  his  most  toilsome 
and  adventurous  missionary  journey. 

4.  The  greater  suitability  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
South  Galatians.  Professor  Ramsay's  commentary  is 
largely  occupied  with  an  elaboration  of  this  idea.  Going 
through  the  Epistle  point  by  point,  the  author  shews 
again  and  again  how  apt  many  of  the  Apostle's  phrases 
and  arguments  are  when  read  with  reference  to  what 
we  know  of  the  four  churches  in  the  south,  and  how 
much  less  suitable  they  would  be  for  North  Galatia. 
Some  of  his  arguments  will  strike  the  ordinary  reader  as 
subtle  and  far-fetched.  But  there  are  considerations 
which  all  of  us  can  appreciate.  Let  us  glance  at  one 
or  two. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  impossible  to  read  the  Epistle 
observantly  without  being  struck  with  the  tone  of  author- 
ity which  the  Apostle  employs  throughout.  It  is  true  he 
is  writing  to  his  own  converts.  But  that  is  the  case  in 
the  Epistles  to  Corinth,  Thessalonica,  and  Philippi ;  yet 
in  none  of  those  Epistles,  not  even  when  rebuking  the 
Corinthians,  does  he  shew  so  much  the  air  of  a  master 
correcting  his  pupils.  He  wonders  at  the  Galatians5  great 
declension,  and  expostulates  with  them  on  account  of  it  in 
no  measured  terms.  Now  there  was  no  district  evangelized 
by  Paul  where  such  a  tone  would  be  more  likely  to  rouse 
a  spirit  of  pride  and  resentment  than  Celtic  Galatia. 
The  Gauls  regarded  themselves  as  the  aristocracy  settled 
in  the  land,  like  our  Norman  barons,  and  despised  the 
original  inhabitants,  those  poor  Phrygians  whom  they  had 
conquered  and  subdued.  To  use  such  an  expression  as 
*  O  foolish  Galatians  ! '  to  such  people  would  be  peculiarly 
annoying.  Paul  had  no  fear  of  man  before  his  eyes,  and 
held  to  his  convictions  with  the  utmost  tenacity,  no 
matter  who  might  dispute  them.  And  yet  he  declared 
that  he  would  become  all  things  to  all  men  if  by  any 
means  he  might  win  some,  and  his  conduct  on  more 
CO  F 


66  GALATIANS 

than  one  occasion  evinces  great  tact.  But  to  address  the 
proud  Gauls,  as  the  Galatians  in  this  Epistle  are  addressed, 
in  language  which  might  almost  be  compared  to  the 
scolding  of  little  children,  must  strike  us  as  anything  but 
tactful.  The  case  would  be  entirely  different  if  Paul 
were  addressing  the  Asiatics  of  Southern  Galatia.  Those 
Phrygians  and  other  races  of  men  who  had  been  in 
subjection  for  generations,  always  emotional,  sometimes 
fanatical,  would  need  firm  treatment,  and  could  stand  it. 

Secondly,  there  are  two  points  of  law  raised  in  the 
course  of  the  Epistle,  each  of  which  would  be  more  suit- 
able to  the  southern  than  to  the  northern  Galatians, 
one  touching  the  law  of  adoption,  the  other  the  law  of 
inheritance.  The  Greek  custom  of  adoption  carried  with 
it  certain  religious  rights  and  obligations.  This  had  been 
so  with  the  Roman  custom  in  ancient  times ;  but  it  had 
ceased  to  be  the  case  before  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era.  Now  in  our  Epistle  the  Apostle  assumes 
that  it  is  still  a  current  custom.  To  be  made  a  son  of 
Abraham  by  adoption  is  to  come  into  the  privileges  of 
the  patriarch's  covenant.  This  then  implies  a  Greek 
civilization,  rather  than  a  Roman.  Then,  according  to 
the  old  custom,  to  be  an  heir  implied  sonship,  because  the 
son  had  a  right  to  inherit  his  father's  property.  Thus  to 
make  a  will  in  favour  of  anybody  implied  the  adoption  of 
that  person.  This  custom  had  ceased  at  Rome  by  Paul's 
time,  but  in  our  Epistle  he  argues  that  the  possession  of 
Abraham's  faith  carries  with  it  the  sonship,  as  the  inherit- 
ance implies  the  adoption,  saying,  '  Know  therefore  that 
they  which  be  of  faith,  the  same  are  sons  of  Abraham  * 
(iii.  7).  In  writing  to  the  Romans,  referring  to  their 
different  customs,  he  argues  conversely,  '  If  children, 
then  heirs'  (Rom.  viii.  16).  Now  the  civilization  of  the 
southern  cities  was  thoroughly  Grecian  ;  they  had  been 
part  of  the  Macedonian  kingdom,  and  were  immersed  in 
the  ideas  and  habits  of  the  Greeks  before  they  had  come 
under  the  Roman  authority.     But  this  was  not  the  case 


INTRODUCTION  67 

with  Galatia  proper,  in  the  north.  Here  their  own  Celtic 
king  had  reigned  till  he  had  to  give  place  to  the  Roman 
governor,  and  Greek  influence  was  much  less  felt.  Con- 
sequently any  reference  to  the  law  of  adoption  would  be 
understood  in  the  Roman  sense,  and  therefore  Paul's 
argument  would  not  be  appreciated  in  North  Galatia  as 
it  would  be  appreciated  in  the  south. 

The  other  legal  point  is  similar.  There  had  come  to 
be  a  difference  between  a  Greek  will  and  a  Roman  will. 
The  Greek  will  was  irrevocable  when  once  it  had  been 
duly  executed  ;  but  the  Roman  will  could  be  destroyed 
or  altered  by  the  testator  at  any  time  so  long  as  he  lived. 
Now  Paul  here  assumes  the  Greek  custom,  when  he 
writes,  '  Brethren,  I  speak  after  the  manner  of  men  : 
Though  it  be  but  a  man's  covenant  (or  testament,  will, 
as  the  word's  primary  meaning  is  in  the  Greek),  yet  when 
it  hath  been  confirmed,  no  one  maketh  it  void,  or 
addeth  thereto'  (iii.  15).  That  is  to  say,  once  made  and 
executed  it  is  irrevocable.  This  is  not  the  Roman 
custom  ;  it  is  the  Greek  custom.  Therefore  it  would  suit 
the  people  of  Southern  Galatia  with  their  Greek  manners 
and  customs  as  it  would  not  suit  the  Romanized  Celts  of 
the  north  who  knew  little  of  Greek  civilization. 

In  the  third  place,  a  small  point  which  yet  is  not 
without  its  significance  may  be  made  out  of  the  Apostle's 
references  to  Barnabas  in  this  Epistle.  He  is  first  simply 
mentioned  as  Paul's  companion  in  one  of  the  Apostle's 
visits  to  Jerusalem.  Paul  writes,  '  Then  after  the  space 
of  fourteen  years  I  went  up  again  to  Jerusalem  with 
Barnabas'  (ii.  1).  But  in  describing  the  dispute  with 
Cephas  at  Antioch  the  Apostle  states  as  the  climax  of  the 
mischief  '  that  even  Barnabas  was  carried  away  with  their 
dissimulation'  (ii.  13).  Why  'even  Barnabas'?  That 
remark  would  be  without  significance  unless  the  readers 
were  sufficiently  acquainted  with  Barnabas  to  be  surprised 
at  his  conduct.  But  the  only  place  in  the  scheme  of 
history  as  we  have  it  in  Acts  which  would  allow  of  Paul 
F  2 


68  GALATIANS 

visiting  North  Galatia  comes  after  the  breach  with 
Barnabas,  when  that  great  teacher  was  no  longer  the 
Apostle's  travelling  companion.  The  Gauls  in  the  north 
could  never  have  seen  him.  Paul,  who  always  adjusted 
himself  to  the  attitude  of  his  readers,  would  scarcely  have 
written  as  he  did  if  that  were  the  case.  But  in  the  visit 
to  the  four  cities  of  South  Galatia  Barnabas  was  with 
Paul,  or  rather,  as  we  read  the  narrative,  Paul  with 
Barnabas,  for  the  senior  disciple  took  the  lead  in  that 
early  mission.  At  Lystra  the  native  people  took  Barnabas 
for  Zeus,  the  supreme  divinity,  and  Paul  for  Hermes,  the 
messenger  god,  because  he  was  the  more  eloquent 
speaker.  The  superior  honour  offered  to  Barnabas 
suggests  that  in  presence  he  appeared  to  be  the  more 
imposing  personage,  as  formally  he  was  the  leader  of  the 
mission.  The  two  worked  together  quite  harmoniously. 
They  delivered  the  same  message.  The  gospel  which  Paul 
preached  was  also  Barnabas'  gospel.  If  then  Barnabas 
turned  aside  from  the  spirit  of  it  and  by  his  example 
contradicted  its  principles,  this  would  be  a  most  surpris- 
ing thing  for  the  people  of  Antioch,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and 
Derbe.  They  would  quite  understand  the  emphasis  of 
the  phrase  '  even  Barnabas  \ ;  but  in  Ancyra,  Tavium,  and 
Pessinus,  away  in  the  north,  places  Barnabas  had  never 
visited,  where  he  had  never  been  heard  of,  or  at  best 
where  he  was  known  only  by  name,  the  remark  would  be 
pointless. 

There  would  be  little  or  nothing  to  say  against  this 
view,  that  the  Galatians  of  our  Epistle  are  no  others  than 
the  members  of  the  churches  which  Paul  and  Barnabas 
planted  during  their  first  missionary  journey  in  Asia 
Minor,  the  South  Galatians,  if  it  were  not  that  certain 
things  in  the  Acts  are  thought  to  point  in  the  opposite 
direction.     Let  us  look  at  these  objections. 

Objections  to  the  South  Galatian  theory.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  Luke  does  not  usually 
adopt  the  nomenclature  of  Roman  political  geography, 


INTRODUCTION  69 

giving  the  districts  he  describes  the  names  of  provinces, 
but,  following  the  older  and  local  custom,  he  uses  the 
native  names  according  to  the  divisions  of  races  or 
ancient  kingdoms.  Thus  when  describing  the  visit  of 
Paul  and  Barnabas  to  the  four  cities  of  South  Galatia  he 
does  not  use  the  word  Galatia,  the  title  of  the  Roman 
province,  but  has  *  Antioch  of  Pisidia'  (Acts  xiii.  14),  'the 
cities  of  Lycaonia,  Lyslra  and  Derbe '  (xiv.  6),  &c.  If  that 
were  all  we  might  conclude  that  while  Luke  chose  to  use 
the  local  names  Paul  preferred  the  Roman  names  for  the 
same  regions.  But  we  find  Luke  also  twice  mentioning 
'Galatia'  (xvi.  6,  xviii.  23).  If  then  he  is  adhering  to  his 
custom  here  he  must  mean  ethnological  Galatia,  Galatia 
proper,  in  the  north,  not  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia. 
And  in  each  of  these  places  Luke  says  that  Paul  went 
through  the  region  of  Galatia.  That  would  seem  to 
indicate  two  visits  to  the  Celtic  district.  Thus  after  all 
it  would  seem  that  Paul  had  evangelized  that  part  of  Asia 
Minor.  If  so,  is  it  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  when 
he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  'Galatians'  it  was  to  people  living 
there  ?  Luke  was  the  attendant  companion  of  Paul  in 
some  of  his  journeys.  Is  it  not  likely  that  he  used  the 
word  'Galatia'  in  the  same  sense  as  his  master?  That 
indeed  is  most  probable.  But  are  we  sure  he  does 
not  mean  the  province  of  Galatia  ?  It  is  true  that  this 
would  be  a  departure  from  his  custom.  But  Professor 
Ramsay  has  shewn  a  good  reason  why  he  should  have 
departed  from  it  in  this  instance.  The  churches  of  South 
Galatia  formed  a  certain  missionary  unit  in  that  they  lay 
along  the  same  travelling  route  and  were  all  four  planted 
at  the  same  time.  They  were  the  earliest  Pauline  churches 
in  Asia  Minor,  the  harvest  of  his  first  missionary  journey 
on  the  mainland  after  leaving  Crete.  It  was  desirable 
therefore  to  comprehend  the  group  under  one  common 
name.  This  could  not  be  done  if  only  the  local  names 
were  used.  In  that  case  Luke  would  have  to  write  Pisidia 
and  Lycaonia.     Besides,  it  is  likely  that  Paul  had  come  to 


70  GALATIANS 

speak  of  these  churches  in  his  own  way  as  Galatian. 
Though  when  describing  the  first  visit  to  the  district 
Luke  would  follow  his  custom  and  use  the  local  names, 
after  the  churches  had  been  formed,  and  had  had  some 
history,  and  had  often  been  mentioned  by  Paul,  it  would 
be  natural  for  Luke  to  adopt  his  master's  phraseology, 
and  call  them  Galatian. 

But  now  in  the  two  passages  above  referred  to  we  have 
mention  of  '  the  region  of  Galatia  and  Phrygia,'  literally  in 
the  first  case  'the  Phrygian  and  Galatian  region'  (Acts 
xvi.  6),  and  in  the  other  either  the  same  thing,  or  'the 
Galatian  region  and  Phrygia '  (xviii.  23) — for  the  order 
of  the  words  is  different.  Now  the  question  is,  Do  these 
phrases  mean  one  district  with  two  names  ?  That  was 
Lightfoot's  view,  on  the  supposition  that  as  the  original 
population  of  North  Galatia  was  Phrygian,  the  expression 
means  'the  region  which  was  originally  Phrygian  and 
afterwards  Galatian  ' — surely  a  cumbrous  notion,  and  one 
dragging  in  a  needless  archaeological  allusion.  If  one 
and  the  same  district  is  meant,  it  is  much  more  probably 
one  known  in  Luke's  day  both  as  Phrygia  and  as  Galatia. 
That  would  apply  to  the  Phrygian  part  of  South  Galatia. 
Then  the  adjectival  form  of  the  phrase  favours  the  view 
that  the  larger  Galatia  of  the  province  and  not  the  original 
ethnographical  Galatia  is  meant.  Professor  Ramsay 
adduces  an  analogous  case :  '  Lakonia  is  the  old  historic 
land  of  Lacediemonia  ;  but  Lako?iikc  ge  (the  Lacedaemo- 
nian land)  comprises  the  entire  region  which  had  passed 
under  Spartan  rule  and  had  been  added  to  Laconia, 
including  Messenia  and  the  land  near  Pylas '  (Hastings' 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  article  'Galatia,  Region  of). 
There  is  no  reason  why  Luke  should  say  'the  Galatian 
region '  if  he  meant  Galatia  proper ;  but  it  would  be  quite 
in  accordance  with  Greek  usage  if,  not  being  so  enamoured 
of  the  Roman  usage  as  Paul,  he  employed  it  for  the  larger 
district  which  took  its  name  from  the  more  ancient  king- 
dom in  the  north.     If  in  the  second  passage  we  read, '  the 


INTRODUCTION  71 

Galatian  region  and  Phrygia,'  we  may  understand  the 
latter  name  to  refer  to  that  part  of  Phrygia  which  was 
not  included  in  Galatia,  or  we  may  take  'the  Galatian 
region '  to  be  the  Lycaonia  part  of  Galatia.  In  any  case 
we  have  no  insuperable  difficulty  here. 

What  looks  more  like  a  serious  difficulty  comes  up  in 
the  content  of  the  earlier  phrase.  The  whole  passage 
runs  thus :  t  And  they  went  through  the  region  of 
Phrygia  and  Galatia,  having  been  forbidden  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  speak  the  word  in  Asia ;  and  when  they 
were  come  over  against  Mysia,  they  assayed  to  go  into 
Bithynia ;  and  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  suffered  them  not ; 
and  passing  by  Mysia,  they  came  down  to  Troas '  (Acts 
xvi.  6-8).  Let  us  study  this  passage  with  a  map  open 
before  us.  As  we  read  it  in  our  English  versions  it 
seems  to  mean  that  the  missionaries  were  first  forbidden 
to  preach  in  Asia — i.e.  the  province  called  Asia,  of 
which  Ephesus  was  the  capital.  Accordingly  they  turned 
aside  and  went  into  the  region  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia, 
and  thence  towards  Mysia,  and  so  on  to  Troas  by  the 
north-west  coast.  Now  if  South  Galatia  is  intended,  a 
difficulty  arises  on  this  understanding  of  the  narrative. 
In  the  previous  paragraph  (verses  1-5)  we  see  that  Paul 
had  just  been  to  Derbe,  Lystra,  and  Iconium.  The 
province  of  Asia  lies  west  of  those  cities,  and  Mysia  is 
north  of  that.  It  seems  absurd  to  say  that,  being  forbidden 
to  go  into  Asia  on  his  journey  from  the  cities  of  South 
Galatia,  Paul  went  back  to  the  province  of  Galatia, 
meaning  those  very  cities,  and  thence  round  by  Mysia 
to  Troas.  Therefore,  it  has  been  said,  the  passage  must 
refer  to  North  Galatia.  But  this  is  on  the  assumption  that 
the  dependent  clause  '  having  been  forbidden  ...  to  speak 
the  word  in  Asia '  must  refer  to  what  happened  before  the 
statement  of  the  primary  clause  and  condition  it,  the 
primary  clause  consisting  of  the  statement,  '  And  they 
went  through  the  region  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia.'  That 
this  is  the  natural  reading  of  the  passage  in  English  must 


72  GALATIANS 

be  granted.  It  has  been  argued  that  it  must  also  be  the 
meaning  of  the  Greek  text.  But  there  are  instances  of 
a  clause  with  a  past  participle  coming  after  one  in  the 
indicative  mood  to  describe  what  followed,  not  what 
preceded  and  conditioned  the  action  first  stated.  Thus 
in  Acts  xxv.  13  we  read,  '  Now  when  certain  days  were 
passed,  Agrippa  the  king  and  Bernice  arrived  at  Cassarea, 
and  saluted  Festus.'  The  Revisers'  margin  has  '  having 
saluted,'  and  this  is  the  exact  translation  of  the  Greek, 
which  is  a  dependent  clause  with  a  past  participle,  similar 
to  that  in  the  passage  before  us.  It  would  be  misleading 
to  translate  it  literally  here,  because  'having  saluted 
Festus'  would  mean  in  English  that  Festus  had  been 
saluted  by  the  king  and  queen  before  they  arrived  at 
the  place  where  they  met  him — an  obvious  absurdity. 
A  similar  construction  is  found  in  Acts  xi.  30 :  '  Which 
also  they  did,  sending  it  to  the  elders  by  the  hands  of 
Barnabas  and  Saul.'  Here  a  past  participle  (Greek 
aorist)  is  translated  by  the  English  present  participle 
'sending,'  and  it  does  not  mean  a  previous  action1. 

Therefore  it  is  perfectly  in  accordance  with  Luke's  style 
to  understand  the  passage  before  us  to  mean  a  series  of 
events  in  the  following  order  : — 

(1)  A  journey  through  the  region  of  Phrygia  and 
Galatia. 

(2)  An  intention  to  preach  in  Asia  (Divinely  frustrated). 

(3)  A  course  of  travel  by  Mysia. 

(4)  An  intention  to  visit  Bithynia  (Divinely  frustrated). 

(5)  The  course  of  travel  continued  through  Mysia  to 
Troas. 

These  are  the  principal  objections  to  the  South  Galatian 
theory,  and  they  do  not  seem  to  go  far  to  dispose  of  it, 
while  we  have  seen  that  the  reasons  for  accepting  it  are 
very  strong  indeed.     It  may  seem  superfluous  to  have 

1  For  other  instances  of  this  form  and  a  full  discussion  of  the 
subject  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians: 
An  Essay  on  its  Destination  and  Date,  by  E.  H.  Askvvith. 


INTRODUCTION  73 

devoted  so  much  attention  to  a  mere  geographical 
question ;  but  we  have  this  result,  that  we  can  now  feel 
assured  that  our  Epistle  was  not  directed  to  an  obscure 
people  of  whom  we  know  nothing,  but  was  sent  to 
those  converts  of  Paul's  first  journey  in  Asia  Minor 
concerning  whom  we  have  very  full  information  in  the 
narrative  of  Acts.  Thus  we  get  a  frame  for  our  picture, 
or  rather  a  background  clearly  outlined  and  richly 
coloured. 


The  Four  Galatian  Cities. 

Having  now  located  the  destination  of  the  Epistle,  we 
are  in  a  position  to  gather  some  information  concerning 
the  places  in  which  the  Galatian  churches  were  founded. 
These,  we  have  seen,  were  four — Antioch,  Iconium,  Lystra, 
and  Derbe. 

Antioch.  The  reader  of  the  New  Testament  meets 
with  two  cities  of  this  name.  One  is  the  capital  of  Syria 
and  the  head  quarters  of  Gentile  Christianity  in  the  days 
of  the  apostles,  the  church  in  which  city  had  ordained 
and  commissioned  Paul  and  Barnabas  for  their  mission- 
ary expedition  (Acts  xiii.  1-3).  The  other  is  known  as 
Antioch  in  Pisidia,  or  more  strictly  '  Pisidian  Antioch,' 
to  distinguish  it  from  various  Antiochs  of  which  there 
were  as  many  as  sixteen  scattered  over  Asia  Minor  and 
Syria,  all  named  in  honour  of  the  Seleucid  kings.  This 
city  had  been  founded  about  300  B.  c.  by  Seleucus 
Nikator.  Some  time  before  the  year  6  B.  c.  Augustus 
made  it  a  Roman  colony.  Under  the  emperors  a  colony 
was  a  city  in  some  conquered  territory  where  soldiers  at 
the  end  of  a  campaign,  or  those  who  had  completed  their 
term  of  service,  were  allowed  to  settle  with  the  privileges 
of  citizenship.  The  citizens  of  a  military  colony  possessed 
a  right  called  ius  Italicum,  which  apparently  included 
not  only  personal  freedom,  but  also  immunity  from  the 
poll  tax  and  the  payment  of  tribute.     In  fact,  a  colony 


74  GALATIANS 

was  like  a  piece  of  Rome  carried  away  into  the  province 
and  still  retaining  the  proud  rights  of  Roman  citizenship. 
Paul  would  rejoice  to  preach  in  such  a  city,  as  he  always 
felt  drawn  to  bring  his  message  to  bear  on  what  was  most 
central  and  potent  in  the  life  of  his  age.  If,  as  Professor 
Ramsay  suggests,  the  Apostle  turned  his  footsteps  towards 
the  uplands  where  this  city  was  situated  in  order  to 
escape  the  mischievous  effects  of  the  malarious  sea-coast, 
he  should  have  found  Antioch  bracing  and  health-giving, 
for  the  city  was  planted  at  an  elevation  of  3,600  feet 
above  the  sea  level,  on  the  skirts  of  a  long  ridge  now 
called  Sultan-Dagh,  overlooking  an  extensive,  fertile 
plain  that  stretches  away  in  a  south-easterly  direction. 
The  ruins  are  said  to  be  imposing  and  to  cover  a  con- 
siderable space,  but  they  have  never  been  thoroughly 
explored.  The  original  population  was  Phrygian,  and 
the  Roman  soldiers  on  account  of  whom  the  city  was 
converted  into  a  colony  could  only  have  formed  a  minority 
of  the  inhabitants.  According  to  the  narrative  in  Acts 
(xiii.  50)  'the  Jews  urged  on  the  devout  women  of 
honourable  estate '  as  well  as  '  the  chief  men  of  the  city ' 
to  persecute  Paul  and  Barnabas.  This  is  a  peculiar 
feature  of  the  persecution  at  Antioch,  not  met  with 
elsewhere,  as  far  as  our  information  goes.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  learn  that  throughout  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the 
Phrygian  cities  in  particular,  women  of  social  standing 
enjoyed  great  consideration  and  even  held  office.  Then 
the  Jews  were  also  an  influential  body  in  Antioch. 
Thousands  of  them  were  settled  in  the  Phrygian  cities. 
At  Antioch  they  had  a  synagogue,  and  were  able  to 
influence  the  chief  people  of  the  city  enough  to  secure 
the  expulsion  of  the  Christian  missionaries. 

Iconium.  This  city,  still  existing  under  the  name  of 
Konia,  and  now  the  terminus  of  the  railway  that  comes 
across  Asia  Minor  in  a  southerly  direction  from  the 
Bosphorus,  was  strictly  speaking  within  the  confines  of 
Lycaonia,    though    the    inhabitants    were    regarded    as 


INTRODUCTION  75 

Phrygians,  a  fact  which  accounts  for  the  statement  in 
Acts  (xiv.  6)  that  when  the  apostles  were  driven  out  of  this 
city  'they  fled  unto  the  cities  of  Lycaonia,  Derbe,  and 
Lystra,'  as  though  they  were  not  already  in  that  district. 
Antony  had  conferred  the  city  on  Amyntas,  the  king  of 
Galatia,  after  whose  death  in  25  B.  C.  it  became  an  integral 
part  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Under  Claudius  it  received 
the  name  Claudiconium.  Unlike  Antioch,  it  was  not  a 
Roman  colony  during  the  apostolic  age,  though  it  became 
one  under  Hadrian  in  the  next  century.  It  remained  for 
two  centuries  part  of  the  province  of  Galatia.  Situated 
on  one  of  the  great  routes  between  Cilicia  and  the 
West,  Iconium  became  an  important  commercial  city, 
and  accordingly  attracted  a  number  of  Jewish  settlers. 
The  modern  Konia  stands  in  the  midst  of  luxuriant 
orchards,  and  is  watered  by  a  stream  from  the  hills  on 
the  west  which  loses  itself  in  the  great  central,  unculti- 
vated plains  that  spread  out  to  the  east  from  this  point. 
The  natural  advantages  of  the  situation  must  have  made 
it  a  garden  of  beauty  and  fruitfulness  in  ancient  times 
when  the  city  was  most  flourishing. 

Lystra.  A  journey  of  eighteen  miles  in  a  southerly 
and  slightly  westerly  direction  from  Iconium  would  bring 
the  traveller  to  Lystra,  a  city  which  was  reckoned  as  in 
the  same  district  with  Derbe,  but  which  was  really  nearer 
to  Iconium.  The  road  between  the  two  sites  rises 
considerably,  so  that  Lystra  was  430  feet  above  Iconium 
and  stood  at  a  height  of  3,780  feet  above  the  sea  level. 
Yet  it  was  situated  in  a  mountain  valley  at  the  extreme 
north  of  the  hills  that  form  the  southern  rampart  of  the 
great  central  tableland.  The  valley  is  refreshed  with 
a  stream  which  flows  in  an  easterly  direction  till  it  loses 
itself  in  the  plain.  About  a  mile  north-west  of  the 
modern  village  of  Khatyn  Serai  is  a  large  mound  which 
marks  the  site  of  the  ancient  city ;  that,  however,  must 
have  extended  over  the  lower,  level  ground  for  some 
distance,  since  a  large  stone  basin,  bearing  an  inscription 


76  GALATIANS 

in  honour  of  Augustus,  has  been  found  some  distance 
from  the  mound,  and  apparently  on  the  site  of  a  sacred 
place  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  emperor.  In 
the  year  1885  a  coin  was  discovered  with  the  Latin 
legend  :  Colonia  .  Iulia  .  Felix  .  Gemina  .  Lustra, 
proving  that  Lystra  was  a  Roman  colony.  The  city 
was  off  the  main  highway  that  ran  east  and  west  through 
Asia  Minor,  but  an  imperial  military  road  connected  it 
with  the  head  quarters  of  the  army  at  Antioch.  In  the 
apocryphal  Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla  it  is  stated  that 
when  Paul  was  expelled  from  Antioch  he  went  along  the 
'  royal  road '  that  leads  to  Lystra  till  he  came  to  the 
crossways,  where  Onesiphorus,  who  was  waiting  for  him, 
induced  him  to  turn  aside  and  visit  Iconium.  There 
would  be  Latin-speaking  veterans  of  the  Roman  army  at 
Lystra  as  in  other  military  colonies,  but  the  majority  of 
the  inhabitants  would  be  the  native  Asiatics — Lycaonians, 
as  they  were  then  called.  Here  were  Jews  also  ;  but  as  we 
do  not  read  of  any  synagogue  in  this  city,  probably  they 
were  not  very  numerous. 

Derbe.  The  last  of  the  four  cities,  that  which  marks 
the  termination  of  the  Apostle's  journey  in  an  easterly 
direction  through  Asia  Minor,  is  Derbe,  another  town  of 
Lycaonia,  still  within  the  large  province  of  Galatia.  The 
site  of  this  city  has  been  identified  with  some  probability 
as  Zoska  or  LosAa,  where  is  a  large  mound  called  Gudc- 
lissin,  which  appears  to  be  ancient  but  has  not  been 
excavated.  This  site  was  identified  by  Professor  Sterrett, 
and  his  opinion  is  accepted  by  Professor  Ramsay,  who 
states,  however,  that  'the  evidence  is  not  yet  perfect.' 
Derbe  was  situated  on  the  main  eastern  road,  to  which 
therefore  Paul  had  returned  after  turning  aside  to  visit 
Lystra.  For  a  time  (from  a.d.  41  to  72)  it  was  the 
frontier  city  of  the  Roman  province,  and  was  entitled 
Claudio-Derbe,  after  the  Emperor  Claudius. 


INTRODUCTION  }7 

The  Origin  of  the  Galatian  Churches. 

The  churches  in  the  four  cities  of  Southern  Galatia 
were  all  founded  in  the  course  of  Paul's  '  first  missionary 
journey.'  It  has  been  said  that  the  title  of  this  journey 
is  not  strictly  correct,  since  the  Apostle  had  been  engaged 
in  evangelistic  preaching  for  years  among  the  towns 
and  villages  of  Syria  and  Judaea  before  he  set  out  on 
this  more  distant  expedition.  But  that  work  was  the 
spontaneous,  irresponsible,  independent  activity  of  a 
man  burning  with  zeal  for  the  cause  he  had  previously 
persecuted,  sanctioned  by  the  highest  of  all  authorities 
— the  authority  of  the  Lord  who  had  called  him  and 
made  him  an  apostle,  but  not  commissioned  by  any 
human  community.  He  always  based  his  right  to 
teach  on  this  primary,  Divine  call.  But  when  he  set 
out  as  the  companion  of  Barnabas  for  the  wider  field 
of  evangelizing,  which  included  more  remote  regions 
than  any  hitherto  visited,  it  was  with  a  distinct  mandate 
from  the  church  at  Antioch  in  Syria.  That  church 
solemnly  set  apart  and  sent  out  the  two  missionaries. 
Their  journey  was  missionary  in  the  sense  that  they 
were  commissioned  by  the  Syrian  church  to  undertake 
it,  and  it  was  the  first  of  Paul's  expeditions  of  this 
character,  and  also  the  first  of  his  extensive  journeys. 
The  two  travellers  sailed  to  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
where  they  were  remarkably  successful  in  one  respect, 
for  they  actually  won  over  to  their  faith  the  Roman 
proconsul,  Sergius  Paulus.  Thence  they  sailed  across 
to  the  mainland  of  Asia  Minor,  landing  in  the  gulf  of 
Attalia,  opposite  to  Cyprus.  Not  staying  long  at  Perga, 
they  made  their  way  up  through  the  Balkans  to  Antioch 
in  Pisidia.  We  have  already  noticed  the  Apostle's 
statement  that  this  inland  journey  was  taken,  or  per- 
haps we  should   say  expedited,  because  of  his  illness1. 

1  See  p.  64. 


78  GALATIANS 

Even  in  the  present  day  it  is  the  common  practice 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  hot,  unhealthy  sea-border  to 
retire  to  the  mountains  on  the  approach  of  summer. 
'When  the  time  arrives,  the  people  may  be  seen 
ascending  to  the  upper  grounds,  men,  women,  and 
children,  with  flocks  and  herds,  camels  and  asses,  like 
the  patriarch  of  old.  If  then  St.  Paul  was  at  Perga  in 
May,  he  would  find  the  inhabitants  deserting  its  hot 
and  silent  streets.  They  would  be  moving  in  the 
direction  of  his  own  intended  journey.  He  would  be 
under  no  temptation  to  stay.  And  if  we  imagine  him 
as  joining  some  such  company  of  Pamphylian  families 
on  his  way  to  the  Pisidian  mountains,  it  gives  much 
interest  and  animation  to  the  thought  of  this  part  of  his 
progress  V 

Mark  declined  to  accompany  the  apostles  in  this 
extension  of  their  expedition  and  returned  to  Jerusalem, 
leaving  Barnabas  and  Paul  to  prosecute  the  mission  by 
themselves.  The  first  halting-place  was  Antioch  in 
Pisidia,  the  Roman  colony  and  great  military  centre. 
Here,  according  to  custom,  they  entered  the  synagogue 
on  the  first  sabbath  and  took  their  seats  among  their 
fellow  Jews.  After  the  usual  reading  of  two  lessons, 
one  from  the  Tor  ah,  the  sacred  book  of  the  law,  and 
the  other  from  the  second  volume  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  the  two  visitors  were  asked  if  they  had 
anything  to  say.  This  was  quite  in  accordance  with 
the  custom  of  the  synagogue,  where  the  preaching 
and  teaching  were  not  confined  to  any  order  of 
ministry,  but  were  open  to  any  capable  person  who 
might  be  invited  to  speak  by  the  elders  in  authority. 
Paul,  already  appearing  as  the  chief  spokesman  in  the 
mission,  responded  to  the  courteous  invitation  of  the 
synagogue  rulers,  rose  to  his  feet,  and  attracting  attention 


1  Conybeare   and    Howson,  Life   and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
chap.  vi. 


INTRODUCTION  79 

with  a  beckoning  wave  of  his  hand,  delivered  the  great 
message  of  the  gospel  for  the  first  time  in  the  hearing  of 
any  people  of  Asia  Minor.  Luke  shews  that  he  perceives 
the  importance  of  the  occasion  by  giving  the  speech  in 
full.  It  must  be  allowed  that,  in  harmony  with  the 
recognized  licence  of  the  ancient  historian,  the  author 
of  Acts  would  feel  free  to  compose  such  a  speech  as  he 
would  believe  Paul  might  have  uttered  on  the  occasion. 
This  was  the  invariable  practice  of  Thucydides,  who 
nevertheless  must  be  reckoned  an  honest  and  trust- 
worthy writer.  But  then  we  must  not  forget  that  Luke 
became  a  travelling  companion  of  the  Apostle.  In  con- 
templating the  production  of  his  narrative,  is  it  not 
likely  that  an  accurate  and  diligent  author,  such  as 
the  preface  to  the  Third  Gospel  leads  us  to  expect  Luke 
to  be,  would  do  his  best  to  learn  from  the  lips  of  Paul 
himself  what  the  Apostle  had  said  on  so  historic  an 
occasion?  At  all  events  we  may  rest  assured  that 
we  have  here  the  line  of  thought  and  the  method  of 
presenting  his  subject  followed  by  the  Apostle.  In  view 
of  our  Epistle  it  is  important  to  see  how  the  Galatians 
were  first  approached  with  the  gospel  message.  Here  in 
the  first  discourse  in  the  first  of  the  four  towns  visited  by 
Paul  and  Barnabas  we  have  the  first  presentation  of 
Christianity  to  these  people.     What  form  did  it  take  ? 

Paul  begins  with  a  brief  review  of  the  history  of 
Israel,  calling  attention  to  God's  choice  of  the  people  and 
His  directing  hand  at  every  great  crisis.  Thus  they 
should  be  prepared  for  some  new  manifestation  of  Divine 
power  and  grace.  In  a  few  swift  strokes  the  Apostle  touches 
on  leading  points  -  the  bondage  in  Egypt,  the  obtaining 
of  Canaan,  the  mission  of  the  judges  up  to  Samuel,  the 
appointment  of  Saul  in  response  to  the  people's  demand 
for  a  king,  the  substitution  of  David  as  king  when  Saul 
was  rejected.  Here  the  recital  ceases.  The  mention  of 
David  suggests  David's  greater  son.  At  this  point  Paul 
plunges  at  once  into  his  new  message.     It  is  all  in  line 


80  GALATIANS 

with  what  preceded.  God  had  sent  the  judges  and  kings  ; 
now  God  has  brought  a  descendant  of  David,  according 
to  the  promises  of  Scripture,  to  be  a  Saviour.  This  is 
Jesus,  for  whose  coming  John  the  Baptist— of  whom  the 
Galatian  Jews  must  have  heard,  for  he  had  disciples 
even  at  Ephesus— prepared  the  way,  and  to  whom  the 
prophet  of  the  wilderness  bore  witness  as  being  a  much 
more  honourable  personage  than  himself.  This  Jesus 
came  to  bring  salvation  to  the  Jews  ;  but  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Jerusalem  rejected  him  and  induced  Pilate  to 
put  him  to  death.  Their  opposition  was  futile,  for 
God  raised  him  from  the  dead,  in  accordance  with 
prophecy.  Through  this  man  forgiveness  of  sins  is  now 
proclaimed.  Every  one  who  believes  is  justified  as  he 
could  not  be  justified  by  the  law  of  Moses.  A  solemn 
warning  not  to  despise  the  message  concludes  this  clear, 
virile  declaration  of  the  gospel.  The  statement  about 
justification  should  be  especially  noted.  Luke  here  re- 
produces the  exact  Pauline  doctrine.  It  is  the  doctrine 
which  the  Apostle  enforces  in  our  Epistle — justifica- 
tion by  faith  over  against  the  failure  of  the  Jewish 
law  to  effect  it.  When  writing  his  letter  he  expresses 
astonishment  that  the  Galatians  should  have  fallen 
back  from  this  position,  fascinated  by  the  weak  and 
beggarly  elements  of  the  law.  He  assumes  that  they 
know  his  teaching  of  justification  by  faith  perfectly  well. 
Now  in  Luke's  account  of  the  first  sermon  preached  to 
the  Galatians  we  see  that  this  idea  is  distinctly  set  forth. 
Here  we  have  the  very  teaching,  departure  from  which 
Paul  deplores  in  his  Epistle. 

The  effect  of  this  sermon  was  remarkable.  No  one 
seems  to  have  taken  offence  at  it,  although  it  was 
delivered  to  Jews  in  their  synagogue.  It  is  to  be 
observed  that  while  Paul  spoke  of  the  ineffectiveness 
of  the  law,  assuming  that  the  Jews  were  conscious  of 
this  in  their  own  experience,  he  did  not  announce  the 
abrogation  of  the  law.     It  was  a  moderate,  considerate 


INTRODUCTION  81 

statement  of  his  position.  The  Jews  requested  Paul 
to  speak  to  them  again  the  next  sabbath.  They  were 
interested,  ,  but  not  yet  convinced,  and  perhaps  per- 
plexed. Still,  after  the  meeting  many  of  them  followed 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  who  urged  them  'to  continue  in 
the  grace  of  God,'  implying  that  they  had  yielded  to 
the  message  and  become  converts.  These  were  of  two 
classes — Jews  and  '  devout  proselytes,'  i.  e.  men  and 
women  of  the  native  race  who  had  previously  accepted 
Judaism.  As  yet  no  heathen  were  included.  But  the 
novel  teaching  made  a  great  stir.  The  synagogue  was 
open  to  the  public,  and  on  the  next  sabbath  it  was  found 
to  be  crowded  with  the  pagan  inhabitants  of  the  city. 
This  roused  the  jealousy  of  the  Jews,  and  as  Paul  was 
preaching,  though  it  does  not  appear  that  as  yet  he  was 
making  any  explicit  offer  of  his  gospel  to  the  Gentiles — 
that  came  a  little  later — since  his  teaching  was  of  such 
a  character  as  to  break  down  the  wall  of  privileged 
seclusion  about  the  covenant  people,  they  interrupted 
him,  contradicting  his  statements,  and  at  length  de- 
scending to  personal  abuse.  Then  Paul  made  a  bold 
declaration  of  policy.  It  was  necessary  that  he  should 
first  deliver  his  message  to  the  Jews.  But  since  they 
had  rejected  it  the  missionaries  would  turn  to  the 
Gentiles.  Of  course  this  pleased  the  latter  class  of 
people,  and  many  of  them  came  over  to  the  new  move- 
ment. Not  only  the  city,  but  the  region — a  technical 
term  for  the  suburban  parts  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
colony — were  affected.  Thus  quite  a  considerable  church 
was  gathered.  We  can  see  from  this  narrative  how  it 
was  composed.  There  was  first  the  nucleus  of  Jews 
and  Jewish  proselytes  won  over  on  the  first  sabbath  ; 
then  there  was  the  much  more  numerous  body  of  con- 
verted pagans  from  the  city  and  'the  region.'  The 
majority  would  be  Gentile,  but  there  was  a  Jewish 
minority. 
This  success  was  not  to  go  on  unmolested.  The  Jews 
(9)  G 


82  GALATIANS 

roused  the  religious  women  of  influential  position  and  the 
chief  men  of  the  city,  who  commenced  a  persecution 
which  induced  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  leave,  shaking  off 
the  dust  of  their  feet,  according  to  their  Master's  direc- 
tions. Thence  they  made  their  way  to  Iconium.  In  con- 
nexion with  this  journey  we  have  the  earliest  account 
of  the  Apostle's  bodily  appearance.  It  is  found  in  the 
apocryphal  Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla,  an  early  Chris- 
tian romance,  based  to  some  extent  on  tradition.  We 
cannot  put  much  faith  in  the  description  contained  in  such 
a  work.  Still  it  is  so  definite  that  it  may  contain  a 
genuine  reminiscence  of  what  Paul  looked  like.  Onesi- 
phorus,  who  with  his  wife  and  family  is  waiting  at  the 
crossroads  for  the  Apostle  as  he  comes  from  Antioch, 
recognizes  him  by  the  description  Titus  *  had  given. 
It  is  as  follows :  '  He  saw  Paul  coming  along,  a  man 
of  moderate  stature,  with  crisp  hair,  .  .  .  scanty, 
crooked  legs,  with  blue  eyes,  and  large  knit  brows, 
long  nose,  and  he  was  full  of  the  grace  and  pity  of  the 
Lord,  sometimes  having  the  appearance  of  a  man,  but 
sometimes  looking  like  an  angel.' 

At  Iconium  the  missionaries  proceeded  on  lines  similar 
to  those  followed  in  Antioch.  They  first  went  to  the 
synagogue,  and  their  preaching  resulted  in  the  conversion 
of  many  people,  both  Jews  and  Greeks.  Here  too  the 
Jews  aroused  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  heathen 
population,  and  the  whole  city  was  divided  into  two 
factions.  At  length  the  antagonism  became  serious. 
Gentiles  and  Jews,  including  the  elders  of  the  synagogue, 
united  in  a  plot  to  stone  the  apostles,  hearing  of  which 
they  fled  from  the  city.  Still  they  had  been  there 
for  some  time  preaching,  and  miracles  had  appeared. 
They  left  a  considerable  church  behind  them  as  the  fruit 
of  their  labours. 

The  next  places  to  be  visited  were  the  Lycaonian  cities 

1  An  anachronism;  this  was  before  Titus   had  met  Paul. 


INTRODUCTION  83 

of  Lystra  and  Derbe,  with  ''the  region  round  about? 
The  mission  was  not  confined  to  the  towns.  Outlying 
parts  were  also  evangelized.  At  Lystra  the  cure  of 
a  cripple  led  to  a  scene  of  wild  enthusiasm.  The  excited 
populace,  more  devoted  to  the  old  pagan  cults  in  the 
interior  of  Asia  Minor  than  people  nearer  Rome,  were  for 
sacrificing  to  the  missionaries  as  to  two  divinities  who 
were  paying  them  a  visit.  They  actually  brought  oxen 
crowned  with  garlands  for  this  object.  Barnabas,  the 
leader  of  the  expedition,  they  took  for  Zeus,  the  king  of 
the  gods,  and  Paul,  the  chief  spokesman,  for  Hermes,  the 
herald  god.  There  was  a  temple  or  shrine,  or  perhaps 
only  an  altar  of  Zeus,  at  the  gate  of  the  city,  and  here 
the  sacrifices  were  to  be  offered.  A  stranger  scene  has 
never  been  witnessed  in  all  the  romance  of  missions.  It 
was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  Paul  could  restrain  the 
crowd  from  their  fanatical  purpose.  Now  we  know  that 
our  Epistle  was  addressed  in  part  to  converts  from  these 
very  people,  we  can  see  how  suitable  some  of  its  expres- 
sions are.  Thus  when  Paul  writes,  'ye  received  me  as 
an  angel  of  God '  (Gal.  iv.  14),  he  may  be  referring  to 
their  mistaking  him  for  Hermes,  the  winged  messengev 
god  of  the  pagans.  If  so,  then  his  words  in  an  earlier 
passage, '  But  though  we,  or  an  angel  from  heaven,  should 
preach  unto  you  any  gospel  other  than  that  which  we 
preached  unto  you,  let  him  be  anathema'  (i.  8),  may 
contain  an  allusion  to  the  same  incident.  Then  his  re- 
minder of  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Galatians,  which  went  so 
far  that  Paul  could  say  of  it,  '  for  I  bear  you  witness,  that, 
if  possible,  ye  would  have  plucked  out  your  eyes  and  given 
them  to  me '  (iv.  15),  might  well  be  based  on  a  recollection 
of  that  frantic  attempt  to  offer  garlanded  oxen  and  so 
render  Divine  honours  to  the  apostles. 

But   the   amazing  changeableness  of  temperament  to 

which  the  Epistle  bears  witness  as  a  painful  characteristic 

of  the  Galatians  was  previously  witnessed  in  the  city  of 

Lystra.     Jews  from  Antioch  and  Iconium  persuaded  the 

G  2 


84  GALATIANS 

mob  to  turn  against  the  missionaries,  no  doubt  represent- 
ing them  to  be  no  better  than  cheats  and  charlatans. 
Chagrin  at  their  own  humiliation  in  having  taken  such 
people  for  gods  would  whip  the  fickle  multitude  into 
a  rage.  What  was  only  planned  at  Iconium  was  effected 
at  Lystra.  Paul  was  stoned  and  dragged  out  of  the  city 
as  a  dead  man.  But  while  the  mourning  disciples  were 
gathered  round  him  he  recovered  consciousness  and  was 
able  to  return.  The  next  day  the  two  missionaries  left 
for  Derbe.  The  mention  of  'disciples'  shews  that  at 
Lystra  there  were  some  converts.  But  they  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  numerous.  There  is  no  statement  to  that 
effect,  as  in  the  cases  of  Antioch  and  Iconium,  and 
probably  Paul's  visit  to  the  city  was  quickly  terminated. 
The  disturbance  must  have  followed  almost  directly  after 
the  cure  of  the  cripple,  and  that  miracle  is  described 
immediately  after  the  general  statement  that  '  they 
preached  the  gospel '  in  these  parts.  But  one  important 
result  of  the  Apostle's  work  at  Lystra  was  that  Timothy 
was  won  to  the  faith  (see  Acts  xvi.  i). 

Luke  gives  the  briefest  notice  of  the  Apostle's  work  in 
Derbe,  the  last  of  the  four  Galatian  cities  visited  ;  but  he 
tells  us  that  the  missionaries  'made  many  disciples.' 
Here  also  a  church  was  founded.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
retraced  their  steps,  again  visiting  the  cities  by  the  way, 
encouraging  and  instructing  the  converts  and  appointing 
elders  in  the  churches,  after  the  pattern  of  Jewish  syna- 
gogues. Coming  down  to  Perga  they  now  stayed  longer 
at  that  place  than  when  they  passed  through  on  their 
outward  journey,  and  delivered  their  gospel  message 
there.  Then,  embarking  at  the  port  of  Attalia,  they 
returned  to  Antioch,  to  the  church  that  had  sent  them 
forth,  with  a  report  of  the  adventures  and  results  of  their 
mission.  The  chief  point  was  that  'God  had  opened 
a  door  of  faith  unto  the  Gentiles.'  We  can  imagine  with 
what  eagerness  the  Christians  of  Antioch  would  listen  to 
this  report.    They  had  sent  out  the  missionaries  under  an 


INTRODUCTION  85 

impulse  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  perhaps  because  directed  to 
do  so  by  prophets  in  their  church.  But  the  mission  had 
been  directed  to  Jews  in  the  first  instance.  It  would  be 
known  that  Paul  and  Barnabas,  both  Jews,  would  visit 
the  synagogues  and  preach  the  gospel  in  those  centres 
of  the  old  faith.  And  yet  the  majority  of  the  Antioch 
church  was  Gentile ;  it  consisted  of  '  Greeks,'  as  the 
name  was  then  used,  that  is  to  say,  of  people  of  Greek 
culture  and  civilization.  And  it  was  liberal  in  spirit  as 
well  as  alive  with  the  passion  of  evangelizing.  Now  it 
learnt  to  its  delight  that  the  signs  of  grace  manifested 
among  its  own  members  were  also  appearing  among  the 
'  Greeks '  of  Asia  Minor.  Experience  was  shewing,  the 
logic  of  facts  was  proving,  that  the  gospel  was  no  narrow 
message  only  for  Jews.  It  was  good  news  for  the  world 
at  large.  Galatia  came  in  to  confirm  what  hitherto  had 
been  seen  at  Antioch  only,  or  scarcely  anywhere  else, 
viz.  the  saving  power  of  the  gospel  for  '  Greeks '  as  well 
as  Jews.  This  was  a  confirmation  of  the  Antiochian 
position  ;  and  it  opened  up  a  magnificent  prospect  for 
the  future  of  Christianity.  Like  the  enlargement  of 
horizon  brought  about  at  the  Renaissance  by  the  discovery 
of  America,  and  further  by  the  appearance  of  the  Coper- 
nican  system  of  astronomy,  an  immense  widening  of 
outlook,  a  vast  increase  of  possibilities,  now  opened  up  to 
the  Antioch  Christians.  The  Gentile  churches  of  Galatia 
were  the  firstfruits  of  a  world-wide  harvest.  This  must 
be  borne  in  mind  when  we  read  of  the  Apostle's  extreme 
disappointment  at  the  defection  to  Judaism  of  these  very 
churches.  It  was  like  the  corruption  of  his  proof-text, 
the  tearing  up  of  his  sheet  anchor.  He  was  accustomed 
to  point  to  Galatia  as  affording  the  Divine  proof  that  his 
liberal  gospel  was  true  and  right,  for  there  God  was  seen 
to  be  blessing  it  greatly  as  a  message  of  grace  to  the 
heathen  apart  from  the  Jewish  law.  Bitter  indeed  must 
have  been  his  disappointment,  deep  and  dark  his  dismay, 
when  he  found  these  specimen   churches   of  their  own 


86  GALATIANS 

accord  cutting  the  ground  from  beneath  them  by 
voluntarily  abandoning  the  position  of  Christian  liberty 
which  their  very  existence  was  vindicating  in  the  eyes  of 
the  timorous  Jewish  Christians  of  Jerusalem. 

Subsequent  Visits  to  Galatia. 

We  learn  from  the  narrative  in  Acts  that  Paul  paid  two 
later  visits  to  the  Galatian  churches.  The  first  (described 
in  Acts  xvi.  1-6)  was  after  the  Jerusalem  council — that 
meeting  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  recorded  in  Acts  xv, 
in  which  the  problem  of  Gentile  Christianity  was  dis- 
cussed and  in  some  measure  decided  (c.  A.D.  50).  The 
proposal  came  from  the  Apostle  who  would  have  had 
Barnabas  go  also  ;  but  when  Barnabas  wished  to  take 
his  nephew  Mark,  who  had  left  them  in  Pamphylia  on 
the  previous  occasion,  Paul  objected,  and  there  was  'a 
sharp  contention '  between  them,  with  the  result  that 
Barnabas  sailed  for  Cyprus,  his  native  island,  with  Mark, 
and  Paul  then  took  Silas  as  his  companion.  This  time 
he  approached  Galatia  from  the  east,  coming  round 
through  Syria  and  Cilicia.  Thus  Derbe,  the  last  town 
visited  on  the  former  occasion,  was  now  reached  first. 
At  Lystra  Paul  found  Timothy,  and  took  him  to  be  his 
attendant  disciple  and  assistant  evangelist.  The  de- 
cision of  the  Jerusalem  council  was  communicated  to 
the  Galatian  churches.  It  allowed  of  Gentile  Christianity 
apart  from  circumcision.  Paul's  great  point  was  gained. 
Converts  from  heathenism  were  not  required  to  become 
Jews  in  accepting  Christianity.  They  could  receive  the 
salvation  of  Christ  without  keeping  the  law.  But  certain 
simple  restrictions,  especially  aimed  at  excluding  heathen- 
ism and  its  vices,  were  included  in  the  'decrees'  from 
Jerusalem.  The  result  of  this  visit  was  an  increase 
and  strengthening  of  the  churches.  For  the  third  visit 
{c.  A.D.  53),  which  followed  a  return  to  Jerusalem  and 
Palestine  after  the  great  tour  in  Macedonia  and  Greece, 


INTRODUCTION  87 

Paul's  first  visit  to  Europe,  he  again  travelled  to  Galatia 
from  Antioch,  though  Luke  does  not  say  which  way  he 
approached  the  province.  He  '  went  through  the  region 
of  Galatia  and  Phrygia  in  order,  stablishing  all  the 
disciples'  (Acts  xviii.  23).  The  Galatians  were  included 
in  the  contributors  to  the  fund  for  the  relief  of  the  poor 
members  of  the  Jerusalem  church. 

The  Date  and  Place  of  Origin  of  the  Epistle. 

Date.  There  is  some  uncertainty,  not  only  as  to  the 
exact  date  of  the  Epistle  —a  comparatively  unimportant 
matter — but  as  to  its  position  in  the  life  and  history 
of  the  early  church  and  its  order  in  the  list  of  Paul's 
letters.  These  are  questions  of  some  interest,  because 
a  right  understanding  of  the  Epistle  itself  and  of  its 
relation  to  the  Christian  life  and  thought  of  the  day, 
of  which  its  ideas  are  important  factors,  depends  in 
some  measure  on  our  answer  to  them.  The  principal 
question  is,  Eid  it  precede  or  follow  the  'council  of 
Jerusalem'?  Nanifestly  the  whole  discussion  contained 
in  the  Epistle  vill  take  a  different  complexion  according 
as  we  considei  Lit  to  be  prior  to  that  decision,  and 
therefore  quite  )ut  of  any  relation  to  it,  or  subsequent 
and  perhaps  moje  or  less  modified  by  it. 

It  was  maintained  by  Lightfoot  that  the  Epistle  came 
later.  But  then  is  a  tendency  in  the  present  day  to 
put  it  earlier,  ard  even  to  make  it  the  first  written  of 
all  our  thirteen  ^auline  Epistles.  Let  us  look  first  at 
the  reasons  in  fcvour  of  an  early  date. 

I.  In  writing  tc  the  Galatians  the  Apostle  expresses  his 
astonishment  at  he  quickness  with  which  they  have  per- 
1  mitted  themselve  to  be  perverted.  He  says,  '  I  marvel 
that  ye  are  so  quckly  removing  from  him  that  called  you 
in  the  grace  of  Christ  unto  a  different  gospel '  (Gal.  i.  6). 
That  is  said  to  inply  a  perversion  very  soon  after  the 
founding  of  the  cmrches.    A  period  of  some  six  years, 


88  GALATIANS 

which  would  be  required  if  we  accepted  the  later  date  of 
the  Epistle,  would  seem  too  long  to  allow  of  such  ran 
expression.  But  how  do  we  know  that  the  Apostle  is 
counting  from  the  time  of  the  founding  of  the  churches  ? 
If  he  had  visited  them  twice  since  and  had  found  them 
steadfast  on  each  occasion,  and  if  he  had  received  letters 
and  messages  even  after  his  last  visit,  perhaps  with 
reference  to  the  collection  for  the  Jerusalem  church,  and 
these  had  conveyed  favourable  reports,  and  then  all 
of  a  sudden  the  Galatians  had  been  led  astray  into 
teaching  quite  contrary  to  that  of  their  Apostle,  this  would 
strike  him  as  an  amazingly  quick  change.  The  news 
would  come  on  him  like  a  thunder-clap,  however  long 
an  interval  may  have  elapsed  since  the  conversion  of 
the  Galatians.  Professor  Ramsay  understands  the  words 
'  so  quickly '  to  mean  '  so  soon '  after  the  second  visit.  But 
they  may  just  as  well  mean  so  soon  after  the  third  visit,  or 
not  even  that,  but  so  quickly,  taken  in  an  lbsolute  sense, 
implying  that  it  had  been  a  hasty  changj  of  mind  and 
belief  on  the  part  of  the  Galatians,  no  mater  when  it  took 
place. 

2.  In  iv.  13  we  read,  'But  ye  know  tha  because  of  an 
infirmity  of  the  flesh  I  preached  the  gosjel  unto  you  the 

first  time.'  Here  the  Revisers  note  in  tleir  margin  that 
the  Greek  word  rendered  '  first '  means  '  former.'  The 
former  time  would  seem  to  mean  the  fir.t  of  two.  Thus 
this  would  seem  to  imply  that  Paul  hal  only  paid  two 
visits  to  Galatia  when  he  wrote  the  Episle.  Accordingly 
it  should  not  be  dated  after  the  third  visi.  But  if  we  take 
the  word  more  indefinitely  as  meaning  jist  'formerly,'  this 
difficulty  vanishes  (see  note  on  the  text). 

3.  In  ii.  3  Paul  writes,  'But  not  evea  Titus  who  was 
with  me,  being  a  Greek,  was  compelled  t>  be  circumcised.' 
Why  does  Paul  say  'being  a  Greek,'  if  Titus  was  known 
to  the  Galatians,  as  would  be  the  caseat  the  later  date 
assigned  to  the  Epistle  ?  The  phrase  however,  is  not 
merely    introduced    in    order    to    infom    the    Galatians 


INTRODUCTION  89 

of  the  fact  that  Titus  was  a  Greek.  The  point  is  that, 
inasmuch  as  Titus  was  a  Greek,  Paul  would  not  permit 
him  to  be  circumcised. 

These  arguments  for  the  early  date  of  the  Epistle  do 
not  amount  to  much.  They  all  turn  on  small  verbal 
points.  On  the  other  hand,  the  reasons  for  assigning  it 
to  the  later  period  stand  on  a  broader  basis.  They  are 
drawn  from  the  character  of  the  Epistle  and  the  subject 
it  discusses.  Paul's  Epistles  naturally  fall  into  four 
groups  according  to  character  and  contents  as  well  as 
in  chronological  arrangement.  First  we  have  the  simple, 
practical  Thessalonian  Epistles,  second  the  great  doc- 
trinal and  controversial  Epistles,  third  the  meditative, 
spiritual,  partly  mystical,  Epistles  of  the  imprisonment, 
fourth  the  Pastoral  Epistle.  There  cannot  be  the  slightest 
question  as  to  which  of  these  groups  would  claim  our 
Epistle  on  the  ground  of  its  subject  and  characteristics. 
This  Epistle  is  immersed  in  the  controversy  with  the 
Judaizers.  Paul's  authority  has  been  challenged,  and 
he  is  vehemently  defending  his  apostolic  rights.  His 
specific  teaching  has  been  set  aside,  and  he  is  expounding 
and  justifying  it  in  a  polemical  temper.  His  style  has  a 
peculiar  force  and  incisiveness  in  keeping  with  the  tone 
and  spirit  of  the  Epistle.  Something  of  the  same  spirit 
and  style  may  be  detected  in  the  other  great  doctrinal 
Epistles.  In  1  Corinthians  Paul  alludes  to  various  parties 
in  the  church,  one  of  which  claims  his  name,  while  the 
rest  take  other  names.  In  2  Corinthians  he  vindicates 
his  own  apostolic  authority  against  opponents.  He  does 
not  find  it  necessary  to  do  this  when  writing  to  the  distant 
church  at  Rome  which  he  has  never  visited.  But  in  the 
Roman  letter  he  deals  with  similar  doctrinal  subjects, 
and  he  uses  the  same  vigorous  style.  Thus  our  Epistle 
naturally  falls  into  line  with  the  other  doctrinal  Epistles, 
those  which  belong  to  the  second  group.  None  of 
the  remaining  three  groups  manifest  these  character- 
istics either  of   subject-matter  or  of   style.     To  place 


9o  GALATIANS 

Galatians  before  I  and  2  Thessalonians  would  be  an 
anachronism,  viewed  in  the  light  of  the  Apostle's  personal 
history  and  the  development  of  his  own  thought  and 
style.  Those  Epistles  give  us  no  hint  of  the  great 
controversy ;  they  contain  no  trace  of  the  logical  strenu- 
ousness  found  in  all  the  four  doctrinal  Epistles.  Of  course 
we  must  allow  that  if  the  troubles  dealt  with  in  our  Epistle 
had  not  broken  out  in  Macedonia  Paul  might  have  had 
no  occasion  to  refer  to  them  when  writing  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians. Still  it  is  easier  to  bring  this  Epistle  into  close 
connexion  with  the  other  doctrinal  Epistles  than  to  separate 
it  from  them  and  place  the  mild,  simple  Thessalonian 
letters  between. 

There  are  some  who  accept  this  position,  but  who 
place  Galatians  before  the  two  Corinthian  Epistles,  dating 
it  from  Ephesus  during  the  Apostle's  long  residence  in 
that  city.  They  thus  bring  it  near  to  Paul's  third  visit 
to  Galatia  (or  his  second  visit,  if  they  hold  to  the  North 
Galatian  theory).  But  we  have  seen  that  if  the  words 
'  so  quickly '  do  not  refer  to  the  Apostle's  recent  presence 
in  Galatia,  then  we  have  no  reason  for  saying  that  the 
Epistle  was  written  soon  after  Paul  had  been  with  the 
Galatians.  If  we  may  allow  a  little  interval  of  time,  there 
is  reason  for  placing  our  Epistle  after  the  Corinthian 
letters.  This  is  found  in  its  close  resemblance  to  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  both  in  idea  and  in  phrase.  The 
two  Epistles  expound  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith 
with  a  fullness  and  force  not  met  with  elsewhere,  and 
they  both  treat  of  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  Judaism 
as  the  one  burning  question  of  the  hour.  Dr.  Lightfoot 
worked  out  the  comparison  in  detail,  and  nothing  that 
has  been  said  since  his  time  could  possibly  demolish 
the  facts  of  close  resemblance  which  he  has  set  before 
us.  Both  Epistles  contain  the  same  appeal  to  Abraham  as 
affording  the  typical  example  of  righteousness  obtained 
by  faith,  the  same  idea  that  they  who  have  faith  are 
Abraham's   true  children.     Then   both  contain  what  to 


INTRODUCTION  91 

Jews  must  have  seemed  the  amazing  statements  that 
the  law  brings  a  curse  rather  than  a  blessing  and  that 
no  man  is  justified  by  it.  Further,  in  both  it  is  argued 
that  this  failure  of  the  law  is  for  the  ultimate  blessing 
of  those  who  come  to  the  righteousness  of  faith.  The 
result  is  shewn  in  both  Epistles  to  be  the  same— that 
those  who  have  faith  become  sons  of  God  in  the  power 
of  the  Spirit. 

Several  striking  and  peculiar  phrases  are  common  to 
the  two  Epistles,  shewing  that  in  language  as  well  as  in 
thought  they  are  often  very  close  together.  For  instance  :  — 

Gal.  ii.  16  :  '  Because  by  the  works  of  the  law  shall  no 
flesh  be  justified.' 

Rom.  iii.  20 :  '  Because  by  the  works  of  the  law  shall 
no  flesh  be  justified  in  his  sight.' 

Here  we  have  identically  the  same  variation  from  the 
Old  Testament,  which  is  as  follows  both  in  the  Hebrew 
and  in  the  Septuagint :  '  For  in  thy  sight  shall  no  man 
living  be  justified'  (Ps.  cxliii.  2). 

Gal.  ii.  19  :  '  Died  unto  the  law.' 
Rom.  vii.  4  :  '  Dead  to  the  law.' 

Gal.  ii.  20  :  '  Crucified  with  Christ.' 
Rom.  vi.  6 :  '  Crucified  with  him.' 

Gal.  iii.  22  :  '  The  scripture  hath  shut  up  all  things 
under  sin.' 

Rom.  xi.  32  :  '  God  hath  shut  up  all  unto  disobedience.' 

Gal.  iii.  27:  'As  many  of  you  as  were  baptized  into 
Christ.' 

Rom.  vi.  3  :  '  All  we  who  were  baptized  into  Christ 
Jesus.' 

Gal.  iii.  27  :  '  Did  put  on  Christ.' 
Rom.  xiii.  14  :  '  Put  ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.' 
Gal.  iii.  29: '  Abraham's  seed,  heirs  according  to  promise.'1 
Rom.  ix.  8  :  '  The  children  of  the  promise  are  reckoned 
for  a  seed.' 


92  GALATIANS 

Gal.  iv.  28  :  '  Children  of  promise.' 
Rom.  ix.  8  :  '  Children  of  the  promise.' 

Gal.  v.  14:  'The  whole  law  is  fulfilled  in  one  word, 
even  in  this,  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself.' 

Rom.  xiii.  8,  9 :  '  He  that  loveth  his  neighbour  hath 
fulfilled  the  law;  ...  it  is  briefly  summed  up  in  this  word, 
namely,  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself.' 

Gal.  v.  16:  '■Walk  by  the  spirit,  and  ye  shall  not 
fulfil  the  lust  of  the  flesh: 

Rom.  viii.  4 :  '  Who  walk  not  after  the  flesh,  but  after 
the  spi?it: 

Gal.  v.  17  :  '  Ye  may  not  do  the  things  that  ye  would.' 
Rom.  vii.  15  :  'Not  what  I  would,  that  do  I  practise.' 

Gal.  vi.  2  :  '  Bear  ye  one  another's  burdens.' 

Rom.  xv.  1 :  *  We  .  .  .  ought  to  bear  the  infirmities  of 
the  weak.' 

In  each  case  the  context  shews  that  the  'burdens'  or 
'  infirmities  '  are  faults  or  moral  defects. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  identity  of  subject  in  the 
two  Epistles  may  account  for  the  close  resemblance  of 
style,  even  if  other  Epistles  come  between.  But  some 
of  these  phrases  do  not  belong  to  the  main  argument ; 
and  in  all  cases  it  is  easier  to  think  that  both  Epistles 
were  written  at  the  same  time  while  the  Apostle's  mind 
was  deeply  stirred  with  the  great  question  raised  by  the 
Judaizers.  This  is  the  more  likely  when  we  consider  the 
peculiarity  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Unlike  all 
the  other  of  Paul's  Epistles,  except  Colossians,  this 
was  not  written  to  one  of  his  own  churches  ;  nor  was  it 
called  forth  by  any  immediate  necessity.  There  was  no 
reason  for  it  to  be  sent  at  the  particular  time  when 
the  Apostle  chose  to  dispatch  it,  excepting  that  his  mind 
was  then  full  of  the  subject.  This  was  so  supremely 
important  that  he  wished  the  church  in  the  imperial  city 
to  come  to  see  it  clearly  and  be  fully  impressed  with  its 


INTRODUCTION  93 

significance.  Possibly  too  he  desired  to  write  out  once 
for  all  a  complete  exposition  of  the  subject  that  might 
serve  for  other  churches  also.  It  is  probable  that  the 
idea  would  occur  to  him  when  the  desperate  state  of 
the  Galatian  churches  urgently  called  for  instruction  and 
expostulation,  rather  than  at  some  subsequent  period. 
If  Paul  wished  to  do  this  at  all,  that  would  be  the  time 
when  he  would  be  most  strongly  impelled  to  write  the 
Roman  letter.  It  seems  reasonable  then  to  say  that  the 
two  epistles  were  written  about  the  same  time.  We 
have  a  parallel  case  in  the  close  resemblance  between 
Ephesians  and  Colossians,  the  natural  explanation  being 
that  they  were  companion  Epistles,  composed  in  the 
same  period  of  the  Apostle's  imprisonment. 

These  considerations  help  us  also  to  decide  which  of 
the  two  letters  was  written  first.  It  has  been  said  that 
Galatians  comes  after  Romans,  since  it  shews  an  intensi- 
fying and  further  accentuating  of  the  ideas  contained  in 
the  earlier  epistle.  This  is  a  perverse  statement  ;  or 
rather,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  it  is  an  inversion  of 
the  case.  Nothing  can  be  more  certain  than  that  Gala- 
tians comes  hot  from  the  roused  feelings  of  the  Apostle. 
He  is  astonished,  distressed,  indignant.  'Out  of  the 
abundance  of  the  heart  the  mouth  speaketh.'  Here  we 
have  the  psychological  moment,  and  in  it  the  psychologi- 
cal explanation  of  the  unique  phenomena  of  the  Epistle. 
This  is  just  the  condition  in  which  new  thoughts  are 
brought  to  the  birth  and  new  phrases  coined.  The 
calmer  atmosphere  in  which  the  longer  epistle  is  written, 
the  absence  of  any  special  need  of  immediate  guidance 
and  help  in  the  church  at  Rome,  the  fact  that  the  Apostle 
had  no  personal  relations  with  that  church,  these  are  all 
conditions  under  which  the  later  discussion  could  best 
be  developed  when  based  on  the  strong  phrases  and 
fiery,  passionate  ideas  of  the  Galatian  letter.  First  we 
have  the  rough  draft,  then  the  elaborate  treatise ;  first 
the  epistle  of  urgent  necessity  aimed  at  effecting  a  vital 


94  GALATIANS 

result,  an  epistle  the  writing  of  which  is  a  deed  ;  after- 
wards the  enlarged,  finished  document  which  partakes 
more  of  the  character  of  literature. 

This  position  of  our  Epistle,  just  before  Romans  and 
therefore  next  after  2  Corinthians,  is  confirmed  by  a  com- 
parison with  the  latter  epistle.  Dr.  Jowett  called  attention 
to  certain  points  of  resemblance  between  the  two.  Thus 
in  both  Paul  vindicates  his  own  apostleship  and  in  both 
he  mentions  his  bodily  weakness  or  illness,  the  -  thorn  in 
the  flesh '  of  2  Corinthians  (xii.  7)  corresponding  to  the 
'infirmity  of  the  flesh'  mentioned  in  Galatians  (iv.  13). 
Accordingly  it  seems  that  we  should  fix  the  date  of  our 
Epistle  between  2  Corinthians  and  Romans,  and  probably 
near  the  time  of  the  latter  epistle.  This  will  give  us  the 
end  of  A.  D.  57  or  the  beginning  of  58  (according  to  the 
usually  accepted  chronology  of  the  Apostle's  missionary 
journeys).  The  date  is  fixed  thus — the  epistle  to  the 
Romans  was  written  in  Achaia  (Rom.  xv.  25,  26),  and 
therefore  probably  from  Corinth.  This  must  be  during 
the  second  visit  recorded  in  Acts  (xx.  2).  It  could  not  be 
the  first  visit  to  Corinth  recorded  in  Acts  xviii,  because 
Paul  had  preached  the  gospel  as  far  as  Illyricum  (Rom. 
xv.  19),  and  we  have  too  full  particulars  of  that  first  visit 
when  he  came  down  through  Philippi,  Thessalonica,  and 
Bercea  to  allow  of  an  interval  for  any  deviation  towards 
Illyricum.  Besides,  Romans  evidently  belongs  to  the 
second  group  of  epistles,  and  has  1  and  2  Corinthians  as 
well  as  Galatians  for  its  companion  epistles.  It  cannot 
possibly  be  put  back  to  the  time  of  the  Thessalonian 
letters,  which  were  written  during  the  first  visit  to  Corinth. 
If  then  Galatians  belongs  to  the  same  period,  this  too 
must  have  been  written  during  that  second  missionary 
visit  to  Greece. 

An  objection  to  this  late  date  assigned  to  Galatians  has 
been  raised  on  the  ground  that  it  makes  the  letter  to  be 
subsequent  to  the  Jerusalem  council.  We  can  best 
appreciate    and     meet    this    objection    when    wc    have 


INTRODUCTION  95 

considered  the  occasion  and  purpose  of  our  Epistle.  Let 
it  stand  over  for  a  little  while. 

Place  of  Origin.  The  question  where  the  Epistle  was 
written  is  virtually  settled  when  we  have  decided  its  date. 
According  to  the  theori6s  as  to  the  date  are  the  theories 
concerning  the  locality.  There  are  the  claims  of  three 
places  which  demand  our  attention. 

1.  Antioch  in  Syria.  The  claims  of  this  place  are 
advocated  by  Professor  Ramsay.  He  considers  that 
Paul  supported  his  arguments  with  the  authority  of  the 
church  in  that  city,  the  church  which  had  sent  out  the 
mission  that  led  to  the  evangelizing  of  Galatia,  and  for 
which  therefore  grateful  converts  should  feel  some 
deference.  The  expression,  'all  the  brethren  that  are 
with  me/  in  the  opening  salutation  (Gal.  i.  2)  is  taken  as 
a  reference  to  the  church  at  Antioch.  But  if  that  church 
were  appealed  to,  why  was  it  not  named  ?  In  the  Epistle 
of  Clement  the  church  at  Rome  addresses  the  church  at 
Corinth.  And  the  phrase,  'all  the  brethren  that  are  with 
me,'  is  not  suitable  to  the  church  which  had  commissioned 
Paul  for  his  tour.  It  applies  much  more  aptly  to  his 
own  travelling  companions.  The  words '  with  me '  point  to 
inferiors  or  subordinates  rather  than  to  a  respected  body 
such  as  the  great  church  at  Antioch.  The  phrase  is  used 
elsewhere  for  the  Apostle's  personal  friends  and  com- 
panions, as  in  Philippians  iv.  21,  where  we  read,  'The 
brethren  which  are  with  me  salute  you.'  But  by  far  the 
most  serious  difficulty  in  the  way  of  accepting  Professor 
Ramsay's  view  comes  from  the  fact  that  it  runs  counter 
to  the  spirit  of  the  Epistle  and  the  line  of  argument 
maintained  through  the  whole  writing.  Paul's  apostolic 
authority  has  been  called  in  question.  He  has  been 
accused  of  presenting  a  second-hand  gospel.  His  teach- 
ing has  been  discredited  by  an  attempt  to  lower  the 
status  of  the  teacher.  Paul  meets  this  personal  charge 
boldly  and  unequivocally.  He  maintains  his  absolute 
independence.     He  ascribes  his  apostleship  to  God  and 


96  GALATIANS 

Christ,  not  to  any  human  being.  On  the  authority  thus 
secured  he  expects  his  readers  to  shew  deference  to 
his  instructions.  He  would  only  have  weakened  his 
argument  in  this  direction  if  he  had  appealed  to 
the  church  at  Antioch  or  associated  that  church  with 
himself  in  his  letter.  It  is  the  one  Epistle  above  all 
others  that  stands  on  the  personal,  independent  authority 
of  the  Apostle. 

The  only  other  reason  for  suggesting  Antioch  as  the 
place  from  which  the  letter  was  sent  which  is  of  any 
weight,  is  dependent  on  Professor  Ramsay's  theory  of 
its  early  date,  a  time  when  Paul  would  be  found  at 
Antioch.  But  if  there  is  validity  in  what  has  .  been 
here  said  about  the  date,  of  course  that  argument 
vanishes.  If  the  Epistle  was  written  as  late  as  A.D.  57 
or  58  it  could  not  have  come  from  Antioch. 

2.  Ephesus.  The  claim  for  this  city  as  the  place  from 
which  the  Epistle  was  dispatched,  put  forth  by  Dr.  Zockler 
and  others,  especially  in  Germany,  is  also  dependent  on 
the  question  of  date.  Placing  the  Epistle  earlier  than  the 
two  Corinthian  letters,  though  later  than  the  two  Thessa- 
lonian  letters  written  during  the  first  visit  to  Corinth, 
it  finds  the  Apostle's  long  stay  at  Ephesus  as  the  most 
likely  period  for  the  writing  of  it.  1  Corinthians  was  written 
at  Ephesus  at  this  time.  Galatians  is  assigned  to  an 
earlier  part  of  the  Apostle's  residence  in  that  city.  On 
the  North  Galatian  theory  it  could  not  be  written  earlier ; 
but  on  the  South  Galatian  theory,  advocated  in  this  Intro- 
duction, it  is  not  necessarily  confined  to  this  time.  The 
quickness  with  which  the  Galatians  were  perverted  is 
given  as  a  reason  for  preferring  Ephesus,  during  the  early 
part  of  Paul's  residence  there,  rather  than  Corinth,  after 
the  whole  time  of  his  stay  in  the  capital  of  Asia  was  over. 
But  we  have  seen  that  his  words  will  not  bear  the  con- 
struction put  on  them  in  this  argument l. 

1  See  p.  S7  f. 


INTRODUCTION  97 

3.  Corinth.  If  we  accept  the  date  above  assigned  to 
the  Epistle  we  seem  driven  towards  Corinth  for  the  place 
of  its  origin.  Coming  later  than  2  Corinthians,  which  was 
written  in  Macedonia,  and  earlier  than  Romans,  which  was 
written  at  Corinth, the  only  alternative  would  be  Macedonia 
or  some  place  on  the  route  round  through  Achaia.  But 
Paul  would  not  be  likely  to  stay  long  at  any  place  during 
this  journey.  He  wrote  to  Corinth,  it  is  true ;  but  he 
had  special  reasons  for  doing  so,  after  Titus  had  come  to 
him  from  that  city.  It  is  more  probable  that  news  of  the 
state  of  the  churches  in  Galatia  would  reach  him  when  he 
was  in  an  important  metropolis  such  as  Corinth,  which  was 
in  constant  communication  with  the  East,  than  while  he 
was  journeying  through  Macedonia  and  Achaia.  Corinth 
then  seems  to  be  the  most  likely  place  of  origin  for  the 
Epistle. 

There  is  no  authority  for  the  subscription  to  the  Epistle 
in  our  Authorized  Version, '  Unto  the  Galatians  written  from 
Rome.'  This  is  not  found  in  the  oldest  MSS.,  which  simply 
have,  'To  the  Galatians/  and  even  that  would  not  have 
been  part  of  the  original  writing. 

The  Occasion  for  Writing  the  Epistle. 

Most  of  Paul's  Epistles  were  written  to  meet  certain 
specific  requirements  of  the  moment.  They  all  contain 
truths  of  profound  significance  and  lasting  worth.  It  was 
characteristic  of  the  Apostle's  depth  of  spiritual  thought 
to  treat  every  topic  he  had  occasion  to  handle  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  'eternal  verities.'  That  is  why  his 
writings  remain  of  permanent  value.  They  are '  Scripture' 
for  us  to-day,  because  they  are  inspired  with  ideas  that  live 
through  all  the  ages  and  bring  light  and  life  to  readers  of 
every  generation.  Nevertheless  they  were  not  drawn  up 
as  manifestos  for  the  benefit  of  the  church  in  perpetuity. 
We  cannot  suppose  that  their  author  had  the  least  idea  of 
the  immense  debt  under  which  he  was  laying  all  future 

(9)  H 


98  GALATIANS 

Christendom.  Such  an  elaborate  work  as  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans  may  have  been  designed  for  more  than  local 
use.  Sent  to  the  church  in  the  centre  of  the  empire,  a 
church  the  Apostle  had  never  seen,  and  for  which  he  was 
in  no  special  way  responsible,  it  bears  the  character  of 
a  careful  declaration  of  his  essential  gospel  intended  to 
be  of  general  service  if  widely  circulated.  But  this  is 
wholly  exceptional — though  Ephesians  and  Colossians 
approach  the  great  Roman  Epistle  in  their  detachment 
from  local  circumstances.  For  the  rest,  Paul's  Epistles 
were  all  written  to  meet  immediate,  pressing  requirements. 
Thus  we  must  understand  what  those  requirements  were 
if  we  would  discover  the  drift  and  purpose  of  the  Epistles. 

These  considerations  apply  with  force  to  the  Epistle  to 
the  Galatians.  No  other  Epistle  is  more  clearly  stamped 
with  the  marks  of  its  origin.  It  springs  up  hot  and  eager 
to  meet  its  provocation.  That  is  really  not  too  strong  a 
phrase.  The  Epistle  was  called  forth  by  nothing  less  than 
provocation.  The  Apostle  was  literally  provoked  into 
writing  it.  Sudden  news  that  fell  upon  him  '  like  a  bolt 
from  the  blue '  roused  the  fire  of  his  indignation.  Still, 
passionate  as  it  is,  this  is  no  mere  outburst  of  feeling. 
The  Apostle  never  thought  more  clearly  than  when  he 
felt  most  deeply.  Like  Byron's  English  Bards  and 
Scottish  Reviewers,  which  is  said  to  have  been  written 
in  a  night  under  a  stinging  sense  of  stupid  injustice, 
our  Epistle  owes  its  point  and  piquancy  to  the  rousing 
circumstances  of  its  origin. 

For  this  was  the  situation.  The  Apostle  was  regarding 
the  four  churches  of  Galatia  as  the  firstfruits  of  his 
missionary  labours.  Though  he  had  been  successful 
elsewhere  in  his  earlier  work,  there  is  no  evidence  that 
he  had  actually  succeeded  so  far  as  to  found  and  organize 
churches  before  he  established  the  churches  at  Antioch, 
Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe.  And  this  remarkably 
successful  work  had  been  aided  and  prospered  by  the 
very  enthusiastic  reception  he  had  received  among  the 


INTRODUCTION  99 

Phrygian  and  Lycaonian  people.  Here  in  the  course  of 
what  we  call  his  '  first  missionary  journey '  he  had  met 
with  eager  souls  who  had  responded  to  his  appeals  with 
all  their  hearts.  They  had  received  him  as  an  angel  of 
God ;  they  would  have  plucked  out  their  eyes  and  given 
them  to  him,  if  he  had  demanded  such  a  sacrifice.  Nor 
was  this  enthusiasm  the  mere  effervescence  of  transitory 
emotion.  When  the  Apostle  passed  through  the  cities  on 
his  return  journey  he  was  able  to  thoroughly  organize 
their  churches.  Since  then  he  had  visited  them  again, 
perhaps  twice,  and  on  each  occasion  he  had  been  well 
received  and  had  found  everything  in  a  most  encouraging 
condition.  Thus  he  had  every  reason  for  thankfulness 
in  thinking  of  these  churches  of  Galatia  now  ripening  in 
Christian  experience. 

Suddenly  the  Apostle  was  amazed  and  confounded  by 
the  receipt  of  absolutely  unexpected  information  of  what 
he  could  regard  as  nothing  less  than  a  revolution  in  the 
beliefs  and  practices  of  the  Galatians.  They  had  come 
to  reject  his  authority  as  an  Apostle,  treating  it  lightly, 
as  quite  inferior  to  the  authority  of  the  Jerusalem 
apostles,  and  no  better  than  a  delegated  position  received 
from  them  and  dependent  on  their  good-will.  This  is  the 
first  surprise,  and  it  calls  forth  the  personal  explanations 
which  occupy  the  first  part  of  the  Epistle.  In  the  second 
place,  in  rejecting  the  authority  of  their  founder  and 
guide,  the  four  churches  had  also  abandoned  his  specific 
teaching  and  adopted  that  of  the  Jewish  Christians  at 
Jerusalem.  Those  Christians  continued  to  observe  the  law 
of  Moses  as  they  had  observed  it  from  their  childhood. 
They  were  loyal  followers  of  Jesus  Christ,  believers  in 
him  as  their  Lord  and  Saviour,  his  servants,  working 
out  what  they  could  see  of  his  will,  for  this  persecuted 
by  their  unbelieving  brethren  among  the  Jews,  and  ready 
to  suffer  martyrdom  for  their  faith.  Still,  they  did  not 
abandon  the  practices  of  the  Jewish  law.  Circumcision 
was  not  superseded  by  baptism,  nor  the  passover  by 
h  2 


loo  GALATIANS 

the  Lord's  Supper,  nor  the  temple  by  the  church.  These 
Jerusalem  disciples  were  law-abiding  Jews  who  accepted 
Jesus  as  Christ,  Jews  who  added  Christianity  to  Judaism 
and  considered  that  the  amalgam  made  one  perfect  re- 
ligion. Now  the  Galatians  were  going  over  to  the  same 
position.  Yet  it  was  really  entirely  different  with  them. 
For  the  most  part  these  people  were  not  Jews  by  birth. 
Unlike  the  Jerusalem  Christians  they  had  never  been 
under  the  yoke  of  the  law,  had  never  confessed  any 
obligation  to  accept  it.  It  was  the  law  of  the  Jews, 
and  they  were  Gentiles.  They  had  received  Christian 
baptism  and  had  been  formed  into  churches  without 
the  least  idea  that  in  so  doing  they  were  becoming 
Jews.  The  omission  of  the  rite  of  circumcision  on  their 
reception  into  the  pale  of  Christianity  was  a  plain  proof 
that  they  were  not  expected  to  adopt  Judaism.  And 
then  the  gospel  which  Paul  had  preached,  and  which 
they  had  received,  tacitly  excluded  Judaism  by  leaving 
no  room  for  it.  They  had  seen  his  picture  of  Christ 
crucified  vividly  set  before  them,  and  in  it  the  promise  and 
pledge  of  full  redemption.  After  that  no  more  could  be 
needed  to  secure  the  very  richest  blessings  which  God 
could  give  or  man  receive.  For  people  with  such 
a  history,  men  who  had  been  heathen,  Gentiles,  never 
under  the  Jews'  law,  and  who  were  now  Christians 
enlightened  with  knowledge  of  the  gospel  of  freedom, 
to  be  adopting  Judaism  was  indeed  an  astounding  piece 
of  perversity.  And  the  change  had  come  about  so 
quickly.  There  had  been  no  premonitory  symptoms. 
It  was  not  like  the  case  of  Newman's  recession  to  Rome, 
a  slow  movement  through  successive  stages  of  deep 
meditation,  soul  struggle,  and  agony,  as  the  story  is 
set  forth  in  his  Apologia  pro  Vitd  sud.  When  last  seen 
by  the  Apostle  these  Galatians  were  apparently  un- 
changed, still  steadfast  in  the  faith  they  had  learnt  from 
their  founder.  And  now  they  are  in  full  pursuit  of  the 
Jewish  gospel,  quite  infatuated  with  it. 


INTRODUCTION  lot 

How  could  so  great  a  change  have  come  about  so 
suddenly?  Dr.  Lightfoot  puts  it  down  to  Celtic  fickle- 
ness. But  we  have  seen  that  the  Galatians  were  not 
Celts,  but  Phrygians  and  Lycaonians.  These  people 
of  Central  Asia  Minor  were  exceptionally  liable  to  be 
captured  by  appeals  to  religious  excitement.  Their 
very  enthusiastic  reception  of  the  Apostle  on  the  occasion 
of  his  first  visit  is  a  revelation  of  their  temperament. 
People  who  had  behaved  in  that  extravagant  manner 
once  would  be  ready  to  do  so  again  if  some  equally 
novel,  though  not  equally  deserving,  influence  were 
brought  to  bear  upon  them.  Like  those  Jews  of  the 
following  cf  James  who  went  down  to  Antioch  and 
disturbed  the  peace  of  the  church  there,  some  Jewish 
Christians,  perhaps  jealous  for  the  position  of  the 
primitive  apostles,  possibly  sincerely  anxious  for  the 
good  of  the  new  heathen  converts,  and  fearing  that 
Paul  had  given  them  a  one-sided  representation  of 
Christianity,  went  over  to  visit  the  four  Galatian  churches, 
the  fame  of  whose  prosperity  had  reached  Jerusalem. 
There  they  set  to  work  to  depreciate  the  authority  of 
Paul,  and  so  to  undermine  his  teaching,  at  the  same 
time  introducing  their  own  teaching  of  Judaistic  Chris- 
tianity. This  they  would  assert  to  be  more  authentic 
since  they  would  claim  to  represent  the  original  Chris- 
tianity of  the  apostles  in  Palestine.  The  idea  was  that 
the  Gentile  converts  should  accept  the  ordinances  of 
Judaism  as  these  were  observed  by  the  Jewish  Christians 
who  constituted  the  primitive  church  at  Jerusalem. 

The  Galatians  were  fascinated.  Paul  in  his  indignant 
amazement  can  only  describe  their  condition  as  that  of 
people  bewitched.  Still,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
intruders  could  make  out  a  specious  case.  They  would 
support  it  on  the  highest  authority,  that  of  Christ's  twelve 
apostles.  There  is  not  the  faintest  evidence  to  shew  that 
they  were  authorized  by  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem.  We 
have  no  indication  that  James  at  the  head  of  the  mother 


102  GALATIANS 

church  had  commissioned  them  for  their  unfortunate  task. 
We  do  not  even  know  that  they  claimed  to  be  the  emis- 
saries of  those  authorities,  though  it  is  quite  possible  that 
they  would  pose  as  such.  But  at  all  events  they  would 
be  able  to  cite  the  precedent  of  Jerusalem,  telling  the 
Galatians  how  the  venerated  community  in  the  parent 
church  thought  and  acted  ;  and  this  would  go  for  much. 
Then  the  substance  of  their  teaching  would  have  a  fascina- 
tion for  the  people  of  Central  Asia  Minor.  These  people 
had  been  brought  up  in  a  religion  of  outward  rites  and 
ceremonies.  Judaism  presented  itself  as  a  system  of 
outward  rites  and  ceremonies.  So  similar  in  spirit  and 
character  were  the  heathen  and  Jewish  cults  in  this 
respect,  that  Paul  could  describe  the  adoption  of  Judaism 
— new  as  it  was  to  the  Galatians  in  name  and  form — as 
nothing  less  than  a  return  to  the  'weak  and  beggarly 
elements '  which  they  had  abandoned  at  their  conversion. 
In  the  Apostle's  opinion  their  adoption  of  Judaism  was 
tantamount  to  a  reversion  to  heathenism.  Then  the 
natural  tendency  to  return  to  the  primitive  type  which  is 
seen  as  much  among  men  and  women  as  it  is  in  the 
cultivation  of  gardens  and  orchards  would  aid  the 
Judaizers.  The  introduction  of  a  new  ritual  would 
awaken  the  old  habit  of  ritual  observance  in  the  minds 
of  the  Galatians. 

But  now  it  is  said  that  all  this  is  inconsistent  with  the 
decision  of  the  council  of  Jerusalem  as  described  in  Acts 
xv.  The  supposed  inconsistency  is  variously  interpreted. 
Baur  and  the  early  Tubingen  critics  used  it  as  an  argu- 
ment for  discrediting  the  historicity  of  Acts.  A  modern 
Dutch  school,  represented  by  Steck,  reverses  the  reasoning 
and  endeavours  to  upset  the  genuineness  of  the  Epistle. 
Lastly,  Professor  Ramsay,  and  others  who  agree  with 
him  on  this  point,  consider  that  it  makes  for  the  early 
date  of  Galatians,  since  the  trouble  in  the  Galatian 
church  could  not  have  arisen  after  the  Jerusalem  settle- 
ment of  the  status  of  Gentile  Christians  ;  or,  at  all  events, 


INTRODUCTION  103 

that  if  it  did  arise  later— though  most  inconsistently— 
Paul  would  certainly  have  appealed  to  the  decision  of  the 
council  in  this  letter.     Yet  he  never  does  so. 

Now  to  take  up  the  last  of  these  ideas  in  the  first  place, 
we  have  to  face  the  question,  Why  did  not  Paul  refer  to 
the  council  and  its  decision  if  he  was  writing  after  that 
event  ?  According  to  the  chronological  arrangement  here 
set  forth  he  had  already  done  so,  lor  he  had  gone  through 
the  Galatian  cities  with  '  the  decrees '  some  time  before 
the  date  of  our  Epistle.  Still,  it  must  be  granted  to  be 
somewhat  perplexing  that  he  makes  no  reference  what- 
ever to  the  subject  in  the  Epistle.  This  point,  however, 
should  be  considered.  Paul's  personal  authority  had  been 
assailed.  His  originality  had  been  challenged.  It  was 
said  that  he  was  only  the  lieutenant  of  the  primitive 
apostles  and  the  bearer  of  a  second-hand  gospel.  Under 
such  circumstances  he  would  not  feel  inclined  to  fall 
back  on  the  authority  of  the  Jerusalem  church.  He 
must  base  his  contention  on  completely  independent 
grounds. 

When  we  turn  to  the  question  of  the  introduction  of 
Judaism  into  the  churches  of  Galatia  after  the  decision  at 
Jerusalem  two  facts  should  be  considered. 

First,  it  is  not  at  all  probable  that  the  whole  church 
loyally  held  to  that  decision.  There  must  have  been  at 
least  a  minority  who  were  overawed  by  the  weight  of  the 
great  leaders  Peter  and  James,  and  compelled,  for  the 
time  being,  to  be  silent  in  face  of  the  very  remarkable 
testimony  concerning  the  conversion  of  the  heathen, 
which  so  trusted  a  member  of  their  community  as 
Barnabas  joined  with  Paul  in  presenting  to  the  church. 
But  though  silenced  for  the  time  they  would  not  be 
convinced,  much  less  would  they  be  finally  suppressed. 
The  spirit  that  shewed  itself  in  the  meddlesome  visit  of 
the  Judaizers  to  Antioch  would  prompt  a  similar  inva- 
sion of  the  liberties  of  Galatia.  The  disturbance  may 
have  come  from  this  minority,  disloyal  to  the  decision 


io4  GALATIANS 

at  Jerusalem,  and  determined  if  possible  to  frustrate  its 
influence. 

Second,  the  question  decided  at  Jerusalem  was  not  the 
same  as  that  subsequently  brought  up  in  Galatia.  The 
point  on  which  the  Christians  at  Antioch  had  consulted 
the  mother  church  concerned  the  reception  of  the  heathen 
into  the  privileges  of  Christianity.  Should  the  rite  of 
circumcision  be  insisted  on?  In  becoming  Christians 
must  they  also  become  Jews  ?  Was  Christianity  only  a 
phase  of  Judaism,  and  should  it  be  bound  down  to  the 
rules  and  customs  of  that  religion  even  when  it  received 
Gentiles  into  its  fold  ?  This  question  was  answered 
in  the  negative.  The  heathen  need  not  be  circumcised ; 
the  Gentiles  were  under  no  obligation  to  keep  the  law. 
Thus  the  main  position  Paul  contended  for  was  gained, 
though  some  slight  restrictions  in  regard  to  the  ritual  of 
diet  were  imposed  on  the  Gentiles,  as  well  as  obligations 
of  moral  purity.  Now  quite  another  question  had  come 
before  the  four  churches  of  Galatia.  They  had  been 
recognized  as  Christian,  quite  apart  from  the  observance 
of  the  Jewish  law.  But  the  Judaizers  who  had  come 
among  them  were  persuading  them  to  adopt  and  practise 
the  rites  of  the  Jewish  religion  in  order  to  perfect  their 
Christian  life.  This  was  not  presented  as  the  preliminary 
to  Christianity,  but  as  the  perfection  of  it  :  not  as  the 
foundation  on  which  to  build,  but  as  the  crowning 
pinnacle.  And  it  was  not  demanded  as  obligatory  ;  but  it 
was  made  out  to  be  eminently  desirable.  Having  become 
Christians  by  faith  in  Christ  while  Gentiles,  free  from  the 
Mosaic  law,  the  Galatians  were  invited  to  go  on  to 
perfection  by  voluntarily  adopting  that  law  and  practising 
it.  This  is  the  situation  Paul  had  to  face.  Thus  he 
writes,  '  Received  ye  the  Spirit  by  the  works  of  the  law,  or 
by  the  hearing  of  faith  ? '  (Gal.  iii.  2).  The  Galatians  had 
welcomed  the  gospel  message  with  faith,  and  the  result 
was  that  they  had  received  the  gift  of  the  Spirit,  always 
regarded  in  apostolic  times  as  the  sure  sign   that   God 


INTRODUCTION  105 

was  acknowledging  those  on  whom  it  descended.  It  was 
their  Divine  seal,  the  proof  that  they  were  duly  authenti- 
cated Christians.  Then  Paul  proceeds  with  his  expostu- 
lation :  '  Are  ye  so  foolish  ?  having  begun  in  the  Spirit, 
are  ye  now  perfected  in  the  flesh  ?  f  (verse  3)—' perfected 
in  the  flesh.'  The  idea  is  that  some  bodily  rite  is  to 
perfect  what  was  begun  in  a  spiritual  way.  Circumcision, 
then,  was  not  the  door  of  entrance  to  the  church,  as  it 
was  to  the  synagogue,  but  a  subsequent  performance  in 
which  the  further  advance  of  a  Christian  life  already 
commenced  was  aimed  at. 

The  Judaizers  might  argue  thus  :— *  It  is  true  you  have 
been  excused  the  rite  on  your  entrance  into  the  church, 
and  with  it  the  obligation  to  keep  the  law.  Thus  you 
have  a  religion  made  easy  for  you  as  an  accommodation 
to  your  Gentile  habits.  But  do  you  desire  an  easy  religion  ? 
See !  We  observe  all  these  regulations  about  days  and 
diet,  fastings  and  washings.  We  grant  that  they  are 
somewhat  of  a  burden.  But  we  are  eager  to  live  the 
highest  life,  to  do  our  utmost  in  religious  service.  The 
same  id  open  to  you.  Accept  these  rules  from  that  of 
circumcision  onwards  and  you  will  not  only  be  Christians 
just  admitted  within  the  gate  of  the  fold ;  you  will  be 
advanced  Christians  following  on  to  perfection.'  Some 
such  presentation  of  the  case  would  appeal  to  enthusiastic 
natures.  These  Phrygians  and  others  of  Asia  Minor  who 
had  witnessed  the  wild,  orgiastic  rites  of  Cybele,  who 
had  even  known  fanatics  mutilate  themselves  in  the 
frenzy  of  their  devotion,  were  not  the  men  to  shrink 
from  a  religion  that  exacted  much.  They  were  ready 
to  despise  an  easy  road  if  a  more  arduous  path  were  set 
before  them.  The  very  severity  of  the  discipline  would 
constitute  its  fascination.  Reading  between  the  lines,  may 
we  add  yet  another  idea  ?  These  people  of  Asia  Minor 
had  been  brought  up  in  all  the  dissoluteness  of  a  most 
corrupt  heathen  society.  Suddenly  they  were  called  to 
live  a  life  of  spotless  purity.     When  the  first  enthusiasm 


io6  GALATIANS 

died  down,  old  habits  would  threaten  to  reassert  their 
power.  How  were  they  to  be  kept  under  ?  Turning  with 
wistful  hope  to  the  rules  of  Judaism,  the  Galatians  would 
be  tempted  to  think  that  here  perhaps  was  the  aid  they 
needed.  If  so,  there  is  something  very  pathetic  in  their 
delusion.  They  were  engaged  in  a  desperate  struggle  for 
which  every  possible  assistance  was  requisitioned. 


Purpose  and  Teaching  of  the  Epistle. 

The  Apostle's  aim  in  writing  this  Epistle  was  to  counter- 
act the  mischievous  influences  that  were  at  work  among 
the  Galatian  churches.  Since  these  were  twofold  in  their 
ends,  though  of  common  origin,  the  reply  and  refutation 
were  necessarily  also  twofold.  Paul's  personal  authority 
as  an  Apostle  had  been  attacked,  and  the  gospel  which 
he  proclaimed  had  been  assailed.  Accordingly  he  had 
in  the  first  place  to  defend  his  apostleship  and  in  the 
second  to  justify  his  doctrine.  These  two  subjects,  though 
so  different  in  form  and  in  the  treatment  they  called  for, 
were  vitally  connected.  K  was  only  because  of  his 
teaching  that  the  Judaizers  had  made  their  personal  attack 
on  the  Apostle,  seeking  to  undermine  his  influence  in 
order  to  discredit  his  message.  And  it  was  only  in  order 
to  secure  what  he  saw  to  be  his  all-important  message 
and  its  hold  upon  the  Galatians  that  Paul  set  himself 
to  the  distasteful  task  of  vindicating  his  office.  This 
was  necessary  in  the  first  instance,  if  only  in  order  to 
gain  a  hearing  for  the  exposition  of  the  great  truths  with 
which  he  followed  in  the  doctrinal  part  of  the  Epistle. 

The  personal  claim.  The  ground  Paul  takes  in  the 
vindication  of  his  own  apostleship  is  the  highest  possible. 
He  claims  to  have  received  it  direct  from  God  and 
Christ,  through  no  human  instrumentality  whatever.  The 
same  claim  extends  to  his  message.  He  has  not 
received  this  from  the  older  apostles,  nor  from  any  other 


INTRODUCTION  107 

Christian  teachers.  It  has  come  to  him  by  revelation  from 
heaven.  In  proof  of  this  high  claim  he  describes  all  his 
interviews  with  the  apostles  previous  to  the  missionary 
journey  when  he  founded  the  Galatian  church.  That  is 
the  object  of  the  autobiographical  reminiscences  with 
which  the  Epistle  opens.  Paul  declares  that  after  his 
conversion  he  did  not  go  up  to  Jerusalem  in  order  to 
learn  from  its  custodians  the  principles  of  the  new  faith 
which  he  had  just  adopted  ;  he  went  direct  to  Arabia,  to 
the  desert,  to  solitude.  There,  alone  with  God,  meditating 
on  the  facts  that  he  had  now  come  to  see  in  a  new  light, 
especially  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  whom  he 
now  acknowledged  to  be  the  Christ,  he  was  led  to  perceive 
the  gospel  that  grew  out  of  them.  This  perception,  since 
it  came  to  him  when  under  the  influence  of  the  Divine 
Spirit,  was  reckoned  by  him  as  a  revelation  from  heaven. 
It  is  true  he  met  the  apostles  on  subsequent  occasions. 
These  he  distinctly  enumerates  and  exactly  describes. 
They  all  occurred  later  than  his  adoption  of  that  form  of 
Christian  truth  which  he  preached  as  in  an  especial 
sense  his  own  gospel,  and  they  were  too  brief  to  account 
for  his  knowledge  of  that  gospel.  They  did  not  allow 
of  the  idea  that  he  had  ever  sat  at  the  older  apostles'  feet, 
as  their  disciple. 

With  this  negative  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  the 
recital  of  the  autobiographical  incidents  there  are  as- 
sociated two  deductions  of  a  positive  character.  It  shews 
that  his  apostleship,  with  its  peculiar  claims  and  the 
mission  to  which  it  was  dedicated,  was  fully  recognized 
by  the  older  apostles ;  and  it  also  shews  that  he  did  not 
shrink  from  asserting  his  full  equality  with  the  chief  among 
them.  The  first  comes  out  in  the  description  of  the 
interview  at  Jerusalem,  in  which  the  leading  apostles  gave 
him  the  right  hand  of  fellowship ;  the  second  in  the  meeting 
with  Peter  at  Antioch,  when  Paul  '  withstood  him  to  the 
face '  and  rebuked  him  sternly  for  what  he  regarded  as 
cowardly  vacillation.     These  two  deductions  account  for 


108  GALATIANS 

the  introduction  of  the  incidents  that  lead  to  them,  and 
are  themselves  important  factors  in  the  main  argument 
by  which  Paul  establishes  his  right  to  full,  independent 
apostleship. 

In  thus  claiming  originality  for  his  message,  as  well 
as  independence  for  his  office,  Paul  must  not  be  under- 
stood to  assert  that  he  was  in  no  way  helped  by  human 
testimony  in  regard  to  the  facts  of  the  life  of  Christ. 
To  suppose  that  he  knew  those  facts  by  revelation 
and  not  by  report  from  eye-witnesses  is  to  bring  in  a 
needless  supernatural  agency.  Luke  tells  us  that  he 
gathered  his  information  for  the  life  of  Christ  from  the 
testimony  of  witnesses.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Paul.  If 
the  Apostle  had  received  the  story  direct  from  heaven, 
why  did  not  Luke  take  it  down  from  the  lips  of  his 
master  ?  Why  did  he  resort  to  the  laborious  process 
of  the  secular  historian  in  hunting  up  his  facts,  if  they 
were  all  ready  to  hand  in  the  information  that  had  been 
flashed  into  the  mind  of  Paul?  If  we  are  to  understand 
the  Biblical  idea  of  revelation  by  studying  the  character 
of  revelations  received  through  prophets  and  apostles,  we 
shall  recognize  that  they  are  not  vehicles  for  conveying 
information  about  the  events  of  external  history,  which 
could  be  obtained  from  earthly  sources— mere  expedients 
to  save  the  trouble  of  historical  research.  Besides,  the 
Apostle  does  not  despise  or  ignore  testimony  in  regard 
to  these  matters.  He  cites  the  evidence  for  our  Lord's 
resurrection,  carefully  specifying  the  witnesses.  In  giving 
his  account  of  the  Lord's  Supper  he  states  that  he  had 
received  it  'of  the  Lord'  (i  Cor.  xi.  23).  Yet  the  narra- 
tive is  parallel  to  the  synoptic  accounts,  and  even  in 
verbal  texture  very  like  that  of  Luke,  who  has  told  us 
that  he  got  the  materials  for  his  book  from  eye-witnesses. 
Are  we  to  understand  that  a  revelation  from  heaven 
would  shape  itself  in  words  agreeing  with  the  synoptic 
tradition  ?  When  we  examine  Paul's  language  in  the 
Greek,  we  find  that  it  does  not  point  to  a  direct  com- 


INTRODUCTION  109 

munication.  He  uses  words  that  are  applied  to  tradition, 
therefore  suggesting  not  that  what  he  is  about  to  com- 
municate was  given  to  him  immediately  by  Jesus  Christ, 
but  that  '  the  Lord '  was  the  original  source  of  it,  so 
that  it  has  his  authority,  though  it  reached  Paul  through 
the  channels  of  human  testimony.  In  referring  to  his 
own  original  message  the  Apostle  calls  it  his  gospel— 
'the  gospel  which  was  preached  by  me.'  Now  the  word 
P  gospel '  is  never  used  by  Paul,  is  never  used  anywhere 
in  the  New  Testament,  for  a  narrative  of  the  life  of  Jesus 
Christ.  The  meaning  attached  to  it  when  it  stands 
as  the  title  of  four  books  in  our  Bible  is  not  met  with 
before  the  second  century,  certainly  not  before  Ignatius, 
not  definitely  before  Justin  Martyr  in  the  middle  of  that 
century.  In  apostolic  times  the  word  invariably  stands 
for  the  message  of  salvation  in  Jesus  Christ.  Paul's 
gospel  was  his  conception  and  presentation  of  that 
message.  It  was  based  on  the  crucifixion  and  resur- 
rection of  Christ.  These  were  facts  widely  known,  the 
first  in  the  world,  the  second  in  the  church.  Viewing 
them  in  relation  to  human  sin,  the  Jewish  law,  and 
the  failure  of  the  struggle  for  deliverance  from  sin  by 
way  of  the  law,  Paul  was  led,  under  the  influence  of 
the  illuminating  Spirit  that  he  felt  he  possessed,  to  strike 
out  new  paths  and  shape  his  message  of  salvation  on 
broader  lines  and  with  a  freedom  from  Jewish  prejudices 
not  yet  attained  by  the  older  apostles.  That  was  his 
gospel.  He  had  not  received  it  from  Peter,  or  John,  or 
James,  or  any  other  human  teacher.  It  had  come  to 
him  from  God.     It  was  a  revelation. 

And  now  the  question  arises,  What  differences  between 
Paul  and  the  older  apostles  does  this  Epistle  make 
apparent?  According  to  Baur  they  are  in  open  and 
pronounced  antagonism ;  the  church  is  divided  into 
two  by  a  wide  cleft,  and  we  have  Pauline  Christianity  on 
the  one  side  and  the  Christianity  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 
on  the   other,  each  disowning   and   opposing   its   rival. 


no  GALATIANS 

In  arguing  against  this  extravagant  representation  of 
the  case  Bishop  Lightfoot  went  to  the  other  extreme, 
denying  that  there  was  any  appreciable  difference 
between  the  two  schools  of  teaching.  More  moderate 
views  have  been  maintained  by  Hort,  Harnack,  and 
McGiffert,  and  even  by  Pfleiderer  and  Weizsacker, 
although  the  two  latter  are  more  inclined  to  the  left 
wing  of  criticism. 

It  is  sheer  perversity  to  maintain  that  there  was  an 
irreconcilable  quarrel  between  Paul  and  his  seniors  in 
the  apostleship.  They  recognized  him  as  an  apostle, 
and  he  acknowledged  them.  This  Epistle  is  sufficient 
to  demonstrate  the  fact  of  their  fundamental  agreement 
and  mutual  respect.  Paul  says,  'and  when  they  per- 
ceived the  grace  that  was  given  unto  me,  James  and 
Cephas  and  John,  they  who  were  reputed  to  be  pillars, 
gave  to  me  and  Barnabas  the  right  hands  of  fellowship ' 
(Gal.  ii.  9).  What  could  be  more  explicit  ?  what  more 
definite  ?  The  elder  apostles,  suspicious  at  first,  origin- 
ally questioning  the  legitimacy  of  Paul's  free  preaching 
of  the  gospel  to  the  heathen,  apart  from  Judaism, 
but  subsequently  convinced  by  the  logic  of  facts,  were 
compelled  to  allow  that  the  conversion  of  the  heathen, 
their  changed  lives,  the  appearance  of  the  Christian 
graces  among  them  of  which  Paul  had  given  evidence, 
were  signs  that  the  work  was  of  God,  that  it  had 
the  stamp  of  His  approval.  Seeing  this,  they  ceased 
to  criticize,  withdrew  their  opposition— if  indeed  they 
had  ever  really  opposed,  and  we  have  not  clear  evidence 
to  that  effect — and  generously  welcomed  Paul  and 
Barnabas  to  their  fellowship. 

At  Antioch  there  was  a  sharp  contest  between  Paul  and 
Peter.  But  according  to  the  account  of  it  in  our  Epistle 
there  was  no  fundamental  difference  between  the  two 
apostles.  Peter  had  been  eating  with  the  Gentiles  till  his 
scruples  were  roused,  or  his  fear  of  criticism  excited,  by 
the   advent  of  strict   Judaizers  from  James.     Then  he 


INTRODUCTION  m 

had  turned  round  and  ceased  to  have  brotherly  intercourse 
with  the  Greek  section  of  the  church.  Paul  was  indignant. 
What  most  roused  his  anger  was  the  appearance  of  moral 
weakness  and  culpable  inconsistency  in  the  older  disciple. 
Peter  appeared  to  be  acting  contrary  to  his  own  con- 
victions. If  they  had  taken  different  lines  all  along  Paul 
would  not  have  been  surprised  at  Peter's  exclusiveness, 
nor  would  he  have  had  any  occasion  to  rebuke  it  as 
hypocrisy. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  allowed  that  there  were 
considerable  differences  of  view  and  method  of  work 
existing  between  Paul  and  the  Jerusalem  church  with 
its  leaders.  I  Peter,  which  is  essentially  Pauline  in  spirit, 
and  the  Epistles  and  Gospel  of  John,  which  are  as  anti- 
Jewish  and  as  liberal  towards  the  Gentiles  as  Paul's  own 
writings,  shew  that  the  two  senior  apostles  came  over  to 
Paul's  position  in  later  years.  The  Epistle  of  James  is 
not  anti- Pauline.  Even  Pfleiderer  admits  this,  holding 
that  it  is  directed  against  an  extravagant  perversion  of 
Paulinism  by  disciples  who  misinterpreted  their  master. 
But  at  the  time  covered  by  the  Acts,  and  when  our  Epistle 
was  written,  it  is  not  clear  that  these  three  reputed  'pillars' 
accepted  Paul's  position.  Probably  the  Jerusalem  church 
never  reached  it.  To  the  last  that  church  was  essentially 
Jewish,  observing  the  law,  and  frequenting  the  temple,  as 
long  as  the  temple  stood.  After  the  destruction  of  the 
city  by  Titus  it  returned  from  Pella,  where  it  had  been  in 
retreat,  appointed  Symeon,  a  relative  of  James,  as  its 
bishop,  and  apparently  resumed  the  James  tradition 
of  Jewish  Christianity.  After  the  revolt  of  Bar  Cochbar, 
in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  when  no  Jews  were  permitted  to 
approach  the  site  of  Jerusalem — now  occupied  by  a  pagan 
city  named  Aelia  Capitolina  with  its  temples  of  Jupiter 
and  Venus— the  Jewish  Christians  were  scattered.  Some 
passed  into  the  Catholic  Church.  But  those  who  held 
together  still  maintained  I  their  Judaism,  and  were  ac- 
cordingly regarded  as  heretics  by  the  Catholic  Church. 


ii2  GALATIANS 

Thus  the  Jerusalem  church  right  down  its  history  was 
Jewish,  observing  circumcision,  keeping  the  law.  In 
this  respect,  then,  James  and  the  Jewish  Christians  differed 
from  Paul  and  the  Greek  Christians  who  followed  that 
Apostle's  leading.  This  was  so  even  on  the  grounds  of 
the  compact  contained  in  the  Jerusalem  treaty.  Jewish 
Christians  were  to  keep  the  law  ;  Gentile  Christians  were 
to  be  exonerated.  But  our  Epistle  goes  much  further 
than  that  compact.  It  proclaims  the  abolition  of  the  law 
for  Jews  as  well  as  for  Gentiles.  The  Jerusalem  Christians 
had  never  faced  such  a  revolutionary  proposal.  It  must 
have  shocked  them  greatly  when  they  heard  of  it.  But 
Paul  was  anxious  to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  church.  In 
this  condition  of  affairs  we  can  see  why  he  attached  great 
importance  to  the  collection  of  money  in  the  Greek  churches 
for  the  assistance  of  the  poor  members  of  the  Jerusalem 
community.  We  must  not  regard  this  in  the  light  of  a 
vulgar  bribe.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  sincere  men 
would  change  their  views  on  receipt  of  a  dole.  But  it  was 
an  evidence  of  brotherly  sympathy ;  the  generosity  it  im- 
plied was  to  be  recognized  as  a  fruit  of  Christian  grace. 
Paul  hoped  that  the  freedom  practised  by  his  converts 
would  be  pardoned  in  view  of  the  spirit  of  love  and  peace 
and  self-sacrifice  they  were  manifesting  towards  their 
more  conservative  brethren  in  Jerusalem. 

The  teaching  of  the  Epistle.  This  was  both  posi- 
tive and  negative ;  but  its  negation  was  the  necessary 
result  of  its  affirmation.  It  asserted  justification  by 
faith  in  Christ  crucified,  and  maintained  that  this  was 
so  complete,  so  all-sufficient,  that  no  room  was  left  for 
any  additional  justification  by  means  of  the  Jewish  law. 
Thus  the  perfection  and  triumph  of  the  Christian  method 
abolished  the  Jewish  by  superseding  it.  The  older 
method  was  no  longer  needed.  It  had  been  proved  to  be 
inefficient.  To  introduce  it  in  addition  to  the  Christian 
method  was  to  detract  from  the  latter  by  usurping  some  of 
its  offices,  since  it  covered  the  whole  ground  and  effected 


INTRODUCTION  113 

the  whole  work  of  salvation  from  beginning  to  end  much 
better  than  the  old  method  could  do  with  any  part  of  it. 
The  Judaizing  proposal  might  be  compared  to  a  sugges- 
tion from  the  rural  owners  of  stage-coaches,  when  the 
railway  was  constructed  from  London  to  Edinburgh,  to 
the  effect  that  they  admitted  the  higher  power  and 
speed  of  the  trains,  and  would  accept  them  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  journey,  say  as  far  as  Berwick,  but 
thought  the  rest  of  the  route  should  be  taken  by  road. 
Paul  was  sure  that  his  gospel  introduced  the  one  efficient 
means  of  salvation.  To  allow  any  space  for  the  clumsy, 
ineffectual  Jewish  method  was  to  detract  so  much  from 
the  range  and  scope  of  the  gospel,  and  so  to  check  and 
retard  the  Christian  progress,  not  to  carry  it  a  stage 
further  on  towards  perfection,  as  the  Judaizers  main- 
tained. ^ 

The  theme  of  the  doctrinal  part  of  the  Epistle  appears 
in  the  Apostle's  speech  at  Antioch,  his  expostulation  with 
Cephas,  or  perhaps  his  comment  on  that  speech.  '  Know- 
ing,' says  Paul,  '  that  a  man  is  not  justified  by  the  works 
of  the  law,  save  (or  rather,  '  but  only ')  through  faith  in 
Jesus  Christ,  even  we  believed  on  Christ  Jesus,  that  we 
might  be  justified  by  faith  in  Christ,  and  not  by  the  works 
of  the  law :  because  by  the  works  of  the  law  shall  no 
flesh  be  justified'  (Gal.  ii.  16). 

The  object  then  aimed  at  by  both  methods  is  'justifica- 
tion.' The  only  question  is  as  to  the  means  of  reaching 
that  object.     The  word  justification  is  legal  and  technical  \ 

It  means  the  establishment  of  a  claim  to  stand  right  in 
the  eyes  of  the  law.  Such  a  term  with  its  forensic  asso- 
ciations, would  be  especially  appropriate  in  an  argument 


1  It  would  be  suggested  to  Paul  by  his  professional  training, 
for  while  by  trade  he  was  a  tent-maker,  by  profession  he  had  been 
a  lawyer.  As  we  should  say,  he  had  been  educated  for  the  bar, 
the  Jews  considering  that  the  work  of  a  trade,  as  the  means  of 
a  livelihood,  was  by  no  means  incompatible  with  the  practice 
of  a  profession  as  the  chief  interest  of  life. 


ii4  GALATIANS 

with  people  who  were  posing  as  champions  of  law. 
Paul  uses  their  own  term  to  shew  that  the  legal  status 
they  aim  at  acquiring  by  their  method  is  reached  by  his 
method.  Some  of  our  difficulty  in  understanding  the 
Apostle  arises  from  the  necessity  of  reading  his  words 
from  the  standpoint  of  Jewish  law  and  Rabbinical  dis- 
cussions if  we  would  see  their  exact  force.  Under  the 
influence  of  modern  science  we  are  more  accustomed  to 
discuss  religious  problems  in  terms  of  biology.  But  the 
technicality  of  the  Apostle's  language  is  not  really  abstruse, 
nor  is  it  very  difficult  to  understand.  From  the  legal  stand- 
point he  uses  the  word  'justify5  in  the  sense  it  invariably 
bears  both  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  New,  and  that 
is  the  sense  we  usually  attach  to  it,  viz.  to  clear  from  a 
charge  of  guilt,  to  acquit.  What  is  special  is  rather  in 
the  application  of  the  word.  With  Paul  it  represents  not 
the  clearing  of  the  innocent  from  a  false  charge,  but  the 
clearing  of  the  guilty  from  a  true  charge.  In  other  words, 
it  stands  for  forgiveness  when  looked  at  from  the  stand- 
point of  law.  This  we  may  regard  as  Paul's  limiting, 
specific  application  of  the  word.  It  is  not  really  far 
from  the  Jewish  application.  In  so  far  as  Christianity 
awakened  a  keener  sense  of  guilt  than  Judaism,  Paul's 
justification  gave  more  prominence  to  the  idea  of  pardon, 
while  Jewish  justification  admitted  of  self-complacency, 
as  when  a  self-righteous  man  attempted  to  justify  himself, 
not  admitting  his  guilt,  excusing  and  defending  his  con- 
duct. Yet  even  here  the  idea  of  the  final  result  was  the 
same,  viz.  to  stand  right  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  to  stand 
right  with  God,  the  Judge  of  all. 

Then,  further,  Paul  continually  identifies  justification 
with  righteousness.  This  is  most  manifest  in  Romans ; 
but  it  is  more  or  less  apparent  throughout  all  his  writings 
on  the  subject.  When  a  man  was  accounted  righteous 
by  being  justified,  Paul  would  say  that  he  possessed  right- 
eousness. He  guarded  himself  against  an  immoral  use 
of  this  teaching  by  continually  insisting  on  the  fact  of 


INTRODUCTION  115 

experience,  that  the  faith  which  justifies  also  brings  anew 
life,  because  it  is  the  act  of  surrender  to  Christ,  through 
union  with  whom  the  transformation  of  character  takes 
place.  Therefore  if  the  transformation  of  character  is 
not  there,  this  is  a  proof  that  the  faith  which  would  bring 
it  about  is  absent,  and  therefore  that  there  can  be  no 
justification. 

Now  Paul  teaches  that  this  justification  is  realized 
by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  How  does  he  prove  it  ?  In 
two  ways— by  an  appeal  to  experience,  and  by  an  appeal 
to  Scripture. 

(1)  The  appeal  to  experience.  The  Galatians  had 
received  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  it  was  working 
wonders  among  them  (Gal.  iii.  5).  These  facts  were  not  to 
be  denied.  The  Galatians  themselves  were  conscious  of 
the  gift,  and  they  saw  its  good  effects  in  their  community. 
What  was  the  source  of  the  wonderful  gift  ?  Originally 
heathen,  living  in  idolatry  and  all  kinds  of  gross 
corruption,  these  people  had  heard  Paul  and  Barnabas 
preach.  They  had  received  the  message,  they  had 
yielded  their  faith  to  what  it  had  set  before  them.  This 
is  all  they  had  done.  There  had  been  no  performance 
of  the  rite  of  circumcision,  no  attempt  to  practise  the 
requirements  of  the  Jewish  law.  And  yet  unmistak- 
able spiritual  results  had  followed.  The  substance  of  the 
preaching  had  been  the  setting  forth  of  Christ  crucified 
(Gal.  iii.  1).  Then  it  was  faith  in  Christ  thus  made  known 
that  had  effected  all  this.  Here  was  the  proof  of 
experience.  But  this  seems  to  imply  that  the  receipt  of 
the  Spirit  was  equivalent  to  justification,  for  what  is 
sought  is  justification,  but  what  is  received  is  the  Spirit. 
The  Apostle's  idea  is  that  this  great  gift  is  a  result  of 
justification,  or  at  all  events  is  only  given  to  the  justified, 
and  therefore  is  a  proof  of  justification.  Moreover  it 
contains  the  promise  and  potency  of  every  needful  grace. 
Paul  reverts  to  this  phase  of  the  subject  in  the  practical 
exhortations  with  which  he  draws  the  Epistle  to  a  close. 
I   2 


n6  GALATIANS 

The  Galatians  possess  the  gift  of  the  Spirit;  then  let 
them  live  in  accordance  with  their  high  privilege,  and 
it  will  work  out  in  their  lives  all  the  Christian  graces. 
1  Walk  by  the  Spirit,'  he  says,  '  and  ye  shall  not  fulfil  the 
lust  of  the  flesh'  (Gal.  v.  16).  A  little  further  on  he 
appends  a  catalogue  of  fruits  of  the  Spirit  to  shew  how 
those  who  have  received  this  gift  have  implicitly  received 
these  graces,  and  will  enjoy  them  in  actual  experience 
if  they  make  use  of  the  gift.  What  more  could  they 
want  ? 

(2)  The  appeal  to  Scripture.  Paul  cites  the  example 
of  Abraham.  This  was  especially  apt  in  dealing  with 
people  who  had  been  fascinated  by  the  glamour  of  the 
Jewish  law,  because  the  story  of  Abraham  was  to  be 
found  in  the  law.  Paul  will  answer  them  from  their  own 
much-vaunted  authority.  We  have  here  a  specimen  of 
the  argumentum  ad  hominem  which  was  a  favourite 
method  of  reasoning  with  the  Apostle.  This  is  not  a 
mere  ad  captandum  argument.  It  is  valid  for  all  who 
accept  the  inspired  authority  of  the  Old  Testament.  He 
cites  the  classic  text,  'Abraham  believed  God' —  though 
he  does  not  now  complete  it  as  when  he  is  writing  his 
more  deliberate  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Still  the  point 
on  which  he  lays  emphasis  is  here.  It  was  Abraham's 
faith  that  was  commended,  not  his  submitting  to  a  rite. 
And  a  promise  of  blessing  to  all  nations  was  connected 
with  the  name  of  Abraham.  Then  the  source  of  his 
own  blessings,  faith,  must  be  the  source  of  the  Gentile 
blessings  also.  Paul  adds  a  second  Old  Testament 
testimony  to  the  value  of  faith,  this  time  citing  a  text 
from  the  prophets— *  The  just  shall  live  by  his  faith' 
(Hab.  ii.  4),  and  then  he  returns  to  the  example  of 
Abraham  on  which  he  mainly  relies. 

The  negative  position  is  necessarily  associated  with 
this  positive  position,  as  its  complement  or  counterpart. 
If  faith  does  everything,  there  is  no  room  for  the  Jewish 
law.     Still  the  law  exists.     How  then  can  it  be  ignored 


INTRODUCTION  117 

or  evaded?  It  is  not  ignored  or  evaded.  It  is  satisfied 
and  superseded.  At  this  point  Paul  brings  in  his  doctrine 
of  the  cross.  The  law  pronounced  a  curse  against  every- 
body who  did  not  keep  all  its  requirements.  Hence  the 
strenuousness  of  the  Jewish  endeavour.  But  Christ  had 
died  a  death  which  the  law  itself  had  pronounced  to  be 
accursed,  for  he  had  been  crucified,  and  the  law  had  said, 
'Cursed  is  every  one  that  hangeth  on  the  tree.'  Then 
Christ  had  experienced  the  worst  thing  that  the  law  had 
threatened— not  merely  death,  its  more  common  supreme 
penalty,  but  the  accursed  death.  What  more  could  it  do, 
since  Christ  had  endured  its  very  worst  ? 

Now  it  is  possible  for  some  one  to  object  here  that  the 
logic  halts.  Christ  did  not  break  the  law,  and  his  death  was 
not  a  legal  infliction  in  consequence  of  any  such  action, 
but  a  grossly  illegal  crime  on  the  part  of  its  perpetrators. 
This  Paul  does  not  stop  to  consider.  It  is  enough  for 
him  that  Christ  did  endure  the  fate  which  the  law 
accounted  accursed.  This  could  not  be  required  a  second 
time.  But,  it  will  be  objected  further,  even  if  Christ 
could  not  receive  the  doom  a  second  time,  how  does  that 
affect  us  ?  We  have  not  experienced  it,  and  we  are  the 
offenders,  not  he.  Christian  theology  has  endeavoured 
to  solve  the  problem  by  the  doctrines  of  imputed  sin 
and  imputed  righteousness.  Our  sin  is  said  to  be  imputed 
to  Christ,  and  then  he  is  punished  for  it  as  though  he 
were  the  guilty  person  ;  Christ's  righteousness  is  said  to 
be  imputed  to  us,  and  then  we  are  acquitted  as  though  we 
were  innocent  people.  This  is  not  the  place  in  which  to 
discuss  a  much  controverted  theological  dogma.  All  we 
are  endeavouring  to  do  here  is  to  understand  Paul's  teach- 
ing in  our  Epistle.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the  doctrines 
referred  to  are  here  explicitly  set  forth.  Probably  we 
should  look  for  his  explanation  of  what  he  leaves  unex- 
plained in  quite  another  direction— not  along  the  lines  of 
what  might  be  called  a  legal  fiction,  but  rather  in  the 
region  of  the  Apostle's  mysticism.  On  one  side  of  his  nature 


n8  GALATIANS 

a  lawyer  arguing  according  to  the  Rabbinical  logic  of  the 
schools,  on  the  other  he  was  a  mystic  penetrating  to  the 
deep  things  of  God  beyond  the  reach  of  words.  These 
two  phases  of  thought  are  never  far  apart.  The  Apostle 
passes  swiftly,  easily,  unconsciously,  from  the  one  to  the 
other.  The  mystical  supplements  the  arguments  of  the 
logical  and  furnishes  data  for  further  reasoning.  In 
the  present  case  Paul  does  not  reason  about  the  relation 
of  Christians  to  Christ.  He  assumes  it.  He  takes  it  as 
a  fact,  realized  in  mystical  experience,  that  there  is  a  union 
so  close  between  the  Redeemer  and  his  people  that  what 
he  does  is  equivalent  to  their  doing  it,  so  that  if  he 
satisfies  the  law  by  enduring  the  curse  they  are  redeemed 
from  that  curse. 

Moreover,  Paul  argues,  returning  to  his  main  position, 
even  while  the  law  held  good  it  could  not  set  aside  the 
promise  to  Abraham  :  even  a  human  covenant  once 
confirmed  cannot  be  thus  treated,  nor  can  it  have  fresh 
clauses  inserted.  The  covenant  with  Abraham  was 
older  than  the  law.  That  law,  only  appearing,  accord- 
ing to  the  conventional  Jewish  reckoning,  430  years 
later,  could  not  interfere  with  the  venerable  covenant. 
Once  confirmed  this  stands  for  all  time.  If  then  Chris- 
tians become  Abraham's  heirs  by  sharing  his  faith,  they 
have  a  right  to  claim  the  permanent  covenant,  not- 
withstanding the  interlude  of  law  which  appears  in 
Jewish  history. 

What  then  was  the  purpose  of  the  law  ?  What  end 
did  it  serve?  Here  we  must  see  that,  while  Paul 
separated  himself  from  the  Judaizers,  he  did  not  take 
the  position  assigned  to  him  by  Marcion  in  the  second 
century.  He  did  not  treat  the  law  as  an  evil  thing,  or 
deny  its  inspired  origin.  He  regarded  it  as  a  Divinely 
ordered  system,  intended  to  benefit  the  people  to  whom 
it  was  given.  The  benefit  was  not  what  the  Judaizers 
claimed.  It  was  not  to  confer  the  gift  of  justification. 
It  was  to  prepare  the  people  for  Christ.     Paul  does  not 


INTRODUCTION  119 

here  say  how  the  preparation  was  carried  on,  though 
he  hints  at  the  process  when  he  adds,  '  the  scripture 
hath  shut  up  all  things  under  sin,  that  the  promise  by 
faith  in  Jesus  Christ  might  be  given  to  them  that  believe  ' 
(Gal.  iii.  22).  This  idea  is  developed  and  explained  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  where  the  Apostle  shews  that 
the  law  awakens  conscience,  creates  the  sense  of  helpless 
guilt,  and  so  shews  the  need  of  Christ  and  drives  us  to 
him  as  our  only  refuge  and  hope.  There  is  no  thought 
that  the  law  carries  us  a  little  way  towards  goodness 
and  then  Christ  meets  us  and  completes  the  process. 
It  does  not  take  us  a  step.  What  it  does  is  to  reveal 
the  necessity  of  redemption  in  Christ. 

But  now  in  representing  the  law  to  be  the  tutor  or 
attendant  slave  who  brings  to  Christ,  Paul  does  more 
than  indicate  its  inferiority  of  function,  he  hints  at  its 
temporary  nature.  This  he  declares  more  explicitly 
a  little  later.  Tutors  and  governors  are  only  set  over 
the  heir  $0  long  as  he  is  an  infant  in  the  eyes  of  the  law. 
As  soon  as  he  is  of  age  he  is  liberated  from  their 
authority  and  surveillance.  After  this  he  has  nothing 
more  to  do  with  them.  Therefore  Christians,  who  are 
regarded  as  God's  adult  sons,  are  entirely  free  from 
the  Jewish  law.  This  argument  only  applies  directly 
to  Jews,  since  they  were  formerly  under  the  law. 
But  a  fortiori  Gentile  Christians  must  be  very  foolish 
if  they  subject  themselves  to  such  a  yoke. 

Thus  Paul  comes  to  the  absolute  abolition  of  the  law 
of  Moses.  It  was  a  great  step  to  take,  a  daring  step. 
It  went  far  beyond  the  Jerusalem  decision,  for  it  not 
only  exempted  Gentiles,  it  made  Jewish  Christians 
equally  free  from  the  law,  the  sanctity  of  which  they  had 
been  brought  up  to  venerate  from  their  childhood.  Paul 
writes  as  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter,  'For 
neither  is  circumcision  anything,  nor  uncircumcision, 
but  a  new  creature'  (Gal.  vi.  15).  The  situation  among 
the  Galatian  churches  had  evoked  that  great  utterance. 


120  GALATIANS 

We  may  almost  thank  the  mischievous  intruders  for 
having  provoked  so  complete  an  answer  to  their  con- 
tention. It  is  impossible  to  say  how  far  Paul  had  gone 
in  this  direction  in  his  earlier  teaching.  But  for  all 
we  know,  never  before  had  he  made  this  explicit 
announcement.  It  might  be  regarded  as  a  logical 
necessity.  Even  the  half  measures  of  the  Jerusalem 
council  pointed  in  this  direction.  If  Gentiles  could  be 
saved  without  the  law,  why  not  Jews  also?  If  there 
was  a  better  method  of  salvation  which  could  be  preached 
to  the  Greeks,  why  should  the  chosen  people  be  ex- 
cluded from  it  ?  Still,  few  people  have  the  courage  to 
be  logical  in  face  of  prejudice.  It  is  Paul  who  saw 
distinctly  to  the  end  of  the  argument,  and  then  dared  to 
pronounce  the  conclusion  in  clear,  ringing  words  that 
nobody  could  misunderstand.  It  is  Paul,  therefore,  who 
liberated  the  church  from  the  Ghetto  and  secured  for 
all  future  ages  that  Christianity  should  go  forth  as  a 
religion  for  mankind,  free  from  the  shackles  and  fetters 
of  an  antique,  provincial  cult.  And  yet  he  was  but 
developing  the  teaching  of  his  Master  who  had  said, 
'No  man  putteth  new  wine  into  old  wine-skins.' 

The  practical  application  to  the  condition  of  the  four 
churches  was  obvious.  The  Galatians  would  gain  no- 
thing by  adopting  the  Jewish  law  as  a  counsel  of  perfec- 
tion. It  would  be  a  degeneration,  not  a  progress,  and  it 
would  put  them  under  the  intolerable  burden  of  com- 
plying with  impossible  obligations  from  which  they  were 
now  free.  Paul  therefore  exhorts  them  to  stand  fast  in 
the  liberty  which  Christ  has  given  them. 

It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  an  Introduction,  which  is  con- 
fined to  the  literary  and  historical  problems  of  the  book 
it  seeks  to  explain,  to  discuss  the  application  of  its  teach- 
ing to  the  circumstances  of  later  ages.  Yet  it  cannot 
be  ignored  that  the  great  controversy  of  Paul  with  the 
Judaizers  has  been  repeated  more  than  once  in  the 
history  of  Christendom,  whenever  the  doctrine  of  faith 


INTRODUCTION  121 

and  the  claims  of  ritual  have  come  into  collision.  Most 
markedly  was  this  the  case  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 
Luther,  with  an  eye  of  genius  for  the  true  inwardness 
of  the  situation,  selected  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  as 
the  chief  weapon  in  his  armoury  with  which  to  do  battle 
against  Rome  ;  and  the  most  beautiful  of  his  writings 
is  his  early  work  Concerning  Christian  Liberty,  in  which 
he  urges  on  behalf  of  Christianity,  as  opposed  to  priestly 
and  Papal  tyranny,  exactly  the  same  claims  which  Paul 
here  puts  forth  in  opposition  to  the  interference  of  Jewish 
legalism. 

It  has  already  been  remarked  in  connexion  with  the 
discussion  on  the  date  of  the  Epistle 1  that  the  topics  of 
Romans  and  Galatians  are  closely  similar.  But  there 
is  a  great  difference  in  the  methods  of  treatment  followed 
in  the  two  epistles  respectively.  While  Galatians  is 
written  in  a  tone  of  vehement  expostulation,  Romans  is 
courteous  in  manner  and  without  any  fault-finding ;  for  in 
writing  to  Rome  Paul  is  addressing  strangers,  and  these 
are  people  against  whom  he  has  no  cause  of  complaint. 
To  them  he  is  simply  sending  an  exposition  of  his  gospel 
for  their  edification.  The  earnestness  of  his  argument 
implies  that  they  need  it,  that  they  have  not  yet  clearly 
seen  it.  That  is  all.  While  the  Galatians  are  blamed  for 
an  amazing  falling  back,  the  Romans  are  encouraged  to 
advance  to  what  the  Galatians  were  supposed  to  have 
attained  previously  and  lost.  The  positive  doctrine  is 
the  same  in  both  cases — justification  through  faith  based 
on  the  redeeming  death  of  Christ.  But  the  negative 
attitude  is  not  the  same  in  the  two  epistles.  Among  the 
Galatians  the  opponents  are  Judaizing  Christians.  No 
such  persons  are  contemplated  in  the  case  of  the  Roman 
church.  At  Rome  the  rival  influence  is  that  of  the  un- 
believing Jews.  Therefore  in  Romans  Paul's  doctrine 
is  opposed  to  Judaism  pure  and  simple— not  to  Judaism 

'See  pp.  90 ff. 


122  GALATIANS 

as  an  addition  to  Christianity,  the  Galatian  position,  but 
to  Judaism  as  claiming  to  be  superior  to  Christianity  and 
so  to  make  out  the  gospel  to  be  needless. 

Literary  Style  and  Characteristics. 

This  is  the  most  characteristic  of  all  Paul's  writings. 
He  reveals  himself  in  the  sincerity  of  his  argument  and 
the  eagerness  with  which  he  presses  it  home.  The  last 
thing  that  he  is  thinking  of  is  the  production  of  a  finished 
piece  of  literature  to  stand  the  criticism  of  the  fastidious 
in  all  ages.  He  is  too  terribly  in  earnest.  Cicero  worked 
up  his  correspondence  with  an  eye  to  effect.  Pope  wrote 
letters  for  the  express  purpose  of  publication.  No  such 
thought  entered  Paul's  mind  while  he  was  dictating  these 
fiery  sentences.  We  shall  not  expect  to  find  in  such  an 
unstudied  composition  the  delicacies  of  phrase  that  delight 
the  admirers  of  Mr.  Walter  Pater.  But  there  is  a  style  the 
very  excellence  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  its  ruggedness. 
Fors  Clavigera  does  not  emulate  the  richly  embroidered 
sentences  of  Mode?-n  Painters.  But  Mr.  Ruskin's  style  is 
as  great  in  vehement  expostulation  as  in  elaborate  de- 
scription. This  Epistle  of  Paul  is  more  than  a  word ; 
it  is  a  deed.  As  we  read  it  we  watch  the  swing  of  the 
sledge-hammer  that  is  breaking  the  fetters  of  Judaism. 

Even  for  us  in  these  late  days,  when  the  controversy 
with  which  it  deals  is  relegated  to  the  museum  of  theo- 
logical antiquities,  the  Epistle  burns  and  throbs  with  life ; 
it  speaks  to  us  in  trumpet  notes  that  we  cannot  keep 
apart  from  the  vexed  controversies  of  our  own  religious 
thought.  There  is  immortality  in  such  an  inspired  utter- 
ance. 

The  Apostle's  tone  in  this  Epistle  differs  from  that  of 
any  other  of  his  writings,  except  the  latter  part  of  2  Corin- 
thians, with  which  it  may  be  closely  compared.  It  is 
vehement,  indignant,  sometimes  approaching  sarcasm,  at 
other  times  indicative  of  profound  concern.     The  opening 


INTRODUCTION  123 

and  close  differ  markedly  from  the  corresponding  parts 
of  all  the  rest  of  Paul's  Epistles.  Elsewhere  it  would 
appear  to  be  his  invariable  habit  to  commence  with 
congratulations  and  thanksgiving  and  to  conclude  with 
affectionate  messages.  Even  in  writing  to  Corinth,  when 
he  had  several  complaints  to  make  about  the  conduct  of 
the  church,  he  was  able  to  find  some  ground  of  congratu- 
lation. He  could  not  praise  the  Corinthians  for  their 
love  one  to  another,  nor  for  their  spiritual  attainments,  as 
for  instance  he  praised  the  Philippians  and  Colossians. 
But  he  knew  that  they  were  gifted  with  intelligence  and 
faculty  of  speech.  Therefore  he  expressed  his  thankful- 
ness to  God  that  they  '  were  enriched  in  him,  in  all  utter- 
ance and  all  knowledge5  (1  Cor.  i.  5) — meagre  praise  for 
a  Christian  church,  but  still  indicating  so  much  to  the 
good.  Paul  cannot  even  say  that  of  the  Galatians.  The 
Epistle  opens  without  a  word  of  congratulation  or  thanks- 
giving. The  Apostle  begins  with  an  assertion  of  his  high 
claims  and  their  Divine  authority.  He  proceeds  to  greet 
his  correspondents  with  language  of  earnest  well-wishing  ; 
for  he  is  writing  in  love  and  for  their  good,  although  he 
is  constrained  to  adopt  a  tone  of  severity.  Then  he 
plunges  right  into  his  subject  with  the  indignant  out- 
burst, '  I  marvel  that  ye  are  so  quickly  removing  from  him 
that  called  you  in  the  grace  of  Christ  unto  a  different 
gospel ;  which  is  not  another  gospel, '  &c.  (Gal.  i.  6).  It 
is  the  same  at  the  close.  There  is  an  entire  absence  of 
those  pleasant  personal  greetings  with  which  Paul  usually 
ends  his  letters.  He  wishes  peace  for  those  who  will 
follow  his  advice — '■  as  many  as  shall  walk  by  this  rule '  ; 
and  then  he  flings  off  the  painful  controversy  with  the 
almost  disdainful  words,  '  From  henceforth  let  no  man 
trouble  me :  for  I  bear  branded  on  my  body  the  marks 
of  Jesus '  (Gal.  vi.  17).  The  briefest  possible  benediction  is 
appended.  There  is  a  sternness  about  Paul's  method  of 
addressing  his  old  friends  that  might  well  strike  them 
with  consternation.     This  was  necessary.     If  they  were 


/24  GALATIANS 

*  bewitched/  caught  in  the  toils  of  an  evil  fascination,  they 
needed  a  rude  awakening. 

For  the  rest,  we  notice  that  Paul's  method  is  by  way 
of  vigorous  argument.  Here  is  no  hectoring  and  brow- 
beating, no  mere  scolding,  no  denunciation  on  the  bare 
authority  of  the  apostleship.  Paul  always  treats  his 
correspondents  as  persons  of  intelligence  who  are  free  to 
cherish  their  own  opinions  and  who,  if  they  are  to  be 
saved  from  error,  must  be  convinced  in  their  own  reason. 
He  is  opposing  what  he  regards  as  a  deadly  heresy,  but 
it  is  not  in  the  spirit  of  the  Inquisition.  His  very  conten- 
tion is  that  Christians  are  God's  free  sons,  and  he  is 
careful  to  treat  even  erring  Christians  with  due  respect  to 
their  liberty  and  independence. 

While  he  argues  his  point,  however,  Paul  does  not 
write  like  a  scholastic  divine,  more  interested  in  the 
abstract  theme  than  in  the  personal  relations  of  the 
disputants.  He  would  care  nothing  for  a  barren  logical 
victory  such  as  the  Rabbis  of  the  schools  or  the  Greek 
sophists  delighted  in.  His  concern  is  wholly  practical. 
He  is  a  father  pleading  with  his  children — though  for  the 
moment  a  somewhat  stern  father,  since  a  severe  treat- 
ment is  what  they  need.  His  one  desire  is  to  rescue 
them  from  the  snare  of  a  most  disastrous  delusion.  Their 
welfare,  not  the  mere  triumph  of  his  doctrine,  is  what  he 
is  labouring  to  secure.  This  gives  an  intensely  human 
interest  to  the  Epistle.  We  do  it  an  injustice  when  we 
discuss  it  with  cold  criticism,  as  though  it  were  an  abstract 
theological  treatise.  The  humanity  of  Paul  is  revealed  in 
the  passion  that  stirs  the  pages,  and  the  humanity  of  his 
readers  is  suggested  by  all  he  says  about  them.  The  key- 
note of  the  motive  of  the  Epistle  is  struck  in  the  sentence, 
1 1  am  afraid  of  you,  lest  by  any  means  I  have  bestowed 
labour  upon  you  in  vain '  (Gal.  iv.  n). 

And  now  in  conclusion  the  question  arises,  What 
was  the  effect  of  this  letter  ?  If  we  could  accept  one  of 
the   earlier  dates  assigned   to   it   Ave  should  have  good 


INTRODUCTION  125 

reason  for  considering  that  it  had  accomplished  its  purpose. 
For  in  that  case  we  should  have  a  record  of  at  least  one 
more  visit  of  Paul  to  Galatia  in  Acts,  and  even  of  two  if 
we  could  admit  Professor  Ramsay's  very  early  date.  The 
fact  that  these  visits  are  but  briefly  alluded  to  would 
imply  that  nothing  remarkable  had  happened.  If  Paul 
had  found  the  trouble  still  working,  painful  scenes 
would  have  ensued,  and  Luke  could  scarcely  have 
passed  them  over  in  silence.  But  with  the  date  assigned 
in  this  Introduction  we  have  no  record  of  a  later  visit 
to  Galatia.  Still  we  have  some  light  on  the  question. 
I  Peter  is  addressed  to  Galatians,  among  other  peoples 
of  Asia  Minor  (1  Pet.  i.  1)  ;  and  this  Epistle  is 
thoroughly  Pauline  in  tone.  But  it  is  not  in  any  way 
controversial  on  the  question  of  the  law.  Thus  it  implies 
that  the  vexed  controversy  is  over,  and  it  assumes  that 
its  readers  agree  with  its  author,  sharing  with  him  the 
spirit  of  liberty  from  the  law.  Subsequently  when  we 
meet  with  Judaistic  Christians  it  is  not  in  Galatia. 
Known  as  Ebionites,  these  people  were  found  in  Judsea, 
and  they  even  penetrated  to  Rome  in  the  second  century. 
But  we  meet  with  no  reference  to  their  presence  in  the 
cities  to  which  this  Epistle  was  written.  Then  about 
the  same  time,  that  is,  before  the  middle  of  the  second 
century,  there  arose  in  Phrygia,  the  very  district  of 
some  of  the  Galatian  churches,  an  enthusiastic  move- 
ment known  as  Montanism,  which  magnified  the  gifts 
of  the  Spirit  and  claimed  the  widest  freedom  for  the 
exercise  of  them.  It  was  in  part  a  revolt  against  the 
growing  clericalism  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  it 
claimed  liberty  of  prophesying  for  laymen  and  even 
for  women.  This  was  regarded  as  a  breach  of  discipline 
and  an  abuse  of  Christian  liberty.  Therefore  it  exhibited 
tendencies  in  some  respects  the  very  opposite  to  that 
fascination  for  legalism  against  which  Paul  contends. 
Accordingly  we  may  safely  conclude  that  the  Epistle  was 
successful,  that  its   powerful  arguments  and   its  urgent 


126         CONTENTS  OF  THE  EPISTLE 

appeals  were  effectual,  that  the  mischievous  leaven  was 
purged  out  and  the  churches  brought  back  to  their  old 
allegiance  to  the  gospel  they  had  received  from  Paul,  its 
liberty,  its  faith,  its  spirituality. 


CONTENTS  OF  THE  EPISTLE 

Introductory  Statements,  i.  i-io. 

Opening-  salutation,  i.  1-5. 

Paul,  claiming  a  Divine  appointment  for  his  apostleship, 
but  associating  his  companions  with  the  letter,  greets  the 
churches  of  Galatia  with  good  wishes  for  their  spiritual 
prosperity. 

The  Galatian  perversion,  i.  6-10. 

The  Apostle  expresses  astonishment  at  the  quickness 
with  which  the  Galatians  are  being  turned  aside  from  his 
gospel.  No  matter  how  high  the  authority  of  any  one 
who  proclaims  another  kind  of  gospel,  he  deserves  to  be 
accursed.  Paul  will  not  consider  whether  he  pleases 
men  in  expressing  such  a  sentiment. 

I.  Personal  Defence,  i.  11 — ii.  21. 

Paul's  account  of  his  own  conversion,  i.  11-17. 

This  is  shewn  to  have  been  wholly  God's  work.  Paul 
did  not  even  see  the  apostles  till  much  later.  He  could 
not  have  received  his  gospel  from  them.  His  first  step 
was  to  seek  retirement  in  Arabia. 

Pirst  visit  to  Jerusalem,  i.  18-24. 

Three  years  later  he  went  up  to  Jerusalem,  stayed  only 
a  fortnight  there,  and  saw  none  of  the  apostles  except 
Peter  and  James  the  Lord's  brother.  Thence  he  went  to 
Syria  and  Cilicia  without  becoming  personally  known 
to  the  churches  of  Judaea. 

Another  visit  to  Jerusalem,  ii.  1-10. 

After  fourteen  years  Paul  went  up  again  to  Jerusalem, 
under  the  influence  of  a  '  revelation,'  accompanying 
Barnabas,  and  taking  Titus,  who  though  a  Greek  was 
not  compelled  to  be  circumcised.  He  then  learnt  nothing 
from  the  leaders  of  the  church ;  but  they  recognized  his 
mission  to  the  Gentiles  and  greeted  him  cordially  as 
a  brother  apostle. 


INTRODUCTION  127 

."Dispute  with  Peter,  ii.  11-14. 

At  Antioch  Paul  boldly  rebuked  Peter  because  that 
apostle  had  gone  back  from  social  intercourse  with  Gentile 
Christians  under  the  influence  of  some  messengers  from 
James,  Barnabas  being  carried  away  by  the  same  influence. 

The  new  life  in  Christ,  ii.  15-21. 

Even  Peter  and  Paul,  though  Jews,  were  not  justified 
by  the  works  of  the  law,  but  through  faith  in  Christ. 
This  faith,  by  identifying  the  Christian  with  the  crucified 
Christ,  brings  about  a  new  life,  together  with  the  conquest 
of  sin.  The  preaching  of  that  truth  destroys  the  religion 
of  law,  to  reintroduce  which,  after  this,  would  be  to  become 
a  transgressor  of  the  Law. 

II.  Doctrinal  Argument,  iii.  1 — v.  1. 

An  appeal  to  experience,  iii.  1-5. 

The  Galatians  must  be  bewitched.  Had  they  received 
the  Spirit  by  way  of  the  law,  or  through  the  gospel  which 
they  had  heard  ?     They  are  stultifying  their  own  past. 

The  example  of  Abraham,  iii.  6-9. 

Abraham's  faith,  according  to  the  law  itself,  was  reckoned 
to  him  for  righteousness.  Then  it  must  be  the  same  with 
those  who  have  become  his  sons  by  sharing  his  faith. 

The  curse  of  the  law,  iii.  10-14. 

They  who  go  the  way  of  the  law  come  under  its  curse, 
since  they  cannot  perfectly  keep  it.  But  Christ  has 
redeemed  us  from  this  curse  by  becoming  a  curse  for  us 
in  dying  the  accursed  death  of  the  cross. 

The  ancient  covenant,  iii.  15-18. 

A  covenant  once  confirmed  cannot  be  subsequently  set 
aside  or  even  altered.  Therefore  God's  covenant  with 
Abraham  cannot  be  affected  by  the  law  which  came 
hundreds  of  years  later. 

The  place  and  function  of  the  law,  iii.  19-29. 

It  was  a  temporary  necessity  for  the  sake  of  transgressors 
to  convict  them  of  sin  and  so  drive  them  to  Christ  for 
deliverance. 

Sonship,  iv.  1-7. 

Christians  are  like  sons  come  of  age,  and  so  liberated 
from  tutors  and  governors,  i.  e.  from  the  restraints  of  the 
Jewish  law. 


128         CONTENTS  OF  THE  EPISTLE 

The  return  to  the  old  bondage,  iv.  8-n. 

The  adoption  of  Jewish  legal  rules  by  the  Galatians 
was  essentially  a  return  to  the  old  bondage  of  their 
heathenism. 

The  earlier  sympathy  between  Paul  and  the   Galatians, 
iv.  12-20. 

Though  it  was  a  phj'sical  infirmity  that  had  led  the 
Apostle  to  preach  to  them  in  the  first  instance  they  had 
given  him  a  most  enthusiastic  welcome.  Has  he  now 
become  their  enemy  because  he  tells  them  the  truth  ?  He 
is  most  affectionately  concerned  for  them. 

The  allegro ry  of  II agar,  iv.  21— v.  1. 

Hagar  corresponds  to  Sinai  and  the  present  Jerusalem 
with  the  law,  Sarah  to  Jerusalem  which  is  above,  the 
mother  of  all  Christians.  As  the  son  of  the  bondwoman  is 
cast  out  after  persecuting  Isaac,  so  will  it  be  with  the  Jews 
after  persecuting  Christians. 

III.  Practical  Expostulation,  v.  2— vi.  18. 
The  danger  of  Judaizing,  v.  2-12. 

In  becoming  circumcised  the  Galatians  were  putting 
themselves  under  an  obligation  to  keep  the  whole  law, 
and  in  seeking  justification  in  that  way  they  were  making 
their  connexion  with  Christ  ineffectual.  The  leaven  would 
spread  and  work  greater  mischief  if  it  were  not  removed. 
Love  the  fulfilment  of  the  law,  v.  13-15. 

Christians  should  not  abuse  their  freedom,  but  practise 
it  in  love,  thus  fulfilling  the  law. 
The  spirit  and  the  flesh,  v.  16-26. 

Christians  are  urged  to  live  in  the  Spirit  and  so  escape 
the    tyranny   of   the   senses.       Indulgence    in    the   flesh 
produces  a  multitude  of  evil  works  ;  life  in  the  spirit,  fruits 
of  good  conduct. 
On  burden-bearing,  vi.  1-5. 

The  more  spiritual  should  restore  a  fallen  brother  in 
a  spirit  of  meekness. 
On  well-doing,  vi.  6-10. 

Church  teachers  should  receive  temporal  support.     The 
harvest  will  be  according  to  the  sowing,  and  patient  labour 
will  be  rewarded. 
Conclusion,  written  by  Paul  himself,  vi.  11-18. 

Writing  with  his  own  hand,  Paul  gives  a  final  warning 
against  the  Judaizers,  desires  that  he  may  be  no  more 
troubled,  and  ends  with  a  brief  benediction. 


LITERATURE 


THESSALONIANS. 

Ellicott,  C.  J.,  A  Critical  and  Grammatical  Commentary  on 
St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Thcssalonians,  with  a  revised 
translation.     3rd  edit.     Longmans,  1865. 

Eadie,  John,  A  Commentary  on  the  Greek  Text  of  the  Epistle  of 
Paul  to  the  Thcssalonians,  edited  by  W.  Young,  with 
Preface  by  Principal  Cairns.     Macmillan,  1877. 

Hutchinson,  John,  Lectures  chiefly  Expository  on  PauFs  First 
and  Second  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  with  Notes  and 
Illustrations.     T.  &  T.  Clark,  1884. 

Denney,  James,  The  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  ('  Expositor's 
Bible ').     Hodder  &  Stoughton,  1892. 

Garrod,  G.  W.,  The  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  also 
The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  Analysis  and 
Notes.     Macmillan,  1900. 

Schmiedel,  Paul  Wilh.,  Die  Briefe  an  die  Thessalonicher  und 
an  die  Korinther  ('  Hand-Commentar  zum  Neuen  Testa- 
ment ').     Freiburg  and  Leipsic,  1893. 

Bornemann,  W.,  Kritisch-exegetischcr  Kommentar  iiber  das  Neue 
Testament  (Meyer,  vol.  x,  6th  edit.).    Gdttingen,  1894. 


GALATIANS. 

Luther,  Martin,  Commentarium  in  Epistolam  S.  Pauli  ad 
Galatas. 

Ellicott,  C.  J.,  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  with  a  Critical 
and  Grammatical  Commentary  and  a  Revised  Translation. 
3rd  edit.     Longmans,  1863. 

Eadie,  John,  Commentary  on  the  Greek  Text  of  the  Epistle  of  Paul 
to  the  Galatians.    T.  &  T.  Clark,  1869. 

Findlay,  G.  G.,  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  ('  Expositor's  Bible'). 
Hodder  &  Stoughton,  1888. 

(9)  K 


i  ;o 


LITERATURE 


Lightfoot,  J.  B.,  St.  PauTs  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  a 
Revised  Text,  with  Introductions,  Notes,  and  Disserta- 
tions.   5th  edit.,  1880.     20th  thousand,  1895,  Macmillan. 

Beet,  Jos.  A.,  A  Commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians.     4th  edit.  1896,  Hodder  &  Stoughton. 

Askwith,  E.  H.,  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians :  an  essay  on  its 
destination  and  date,  with  an  Appendix  on  the  visit  to 
Jerusalem,  recorded  in  chap.  ii.     Macmillan,  1899. 

Ramsay,  W.  M.,  A  Historical  Commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle 

to  the  Galatians.     Hodder  &  Stoughton,  1899. 
Lipsius,    R.   A.,   Die  Bricfc   an  die  Galater,   Romer,  Philipper 

('  Hand-Commentar  zum  Neuen  Testament').    Freiburg 

and  Leipsic,  1893. 
Sieffert,   F.,  Kritisch-excgetischcr  Komntcntar  iiber  das  Neue 

Testament  (Meyer,  vol.  vii,  9th  edit.)     Gottingen,  1899. 
Schmidt,  P.  V. ,  Der  Galatcrbrief  im  Fcucr  dcr  neucsten  Kritik. 

Leipsic,  1892. 

Valuable  light  on  these  Epistles  may  be  obtained  from 
Jowett,  The  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Thessalonians,  Galatians, 
and  Romans,  third  edition,  edited  and  condensed  by  Lewis 
Campbell  John  Murray,  1894);  Conybeare  and  Howson,  The 
Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul;  Ramsay,  Paul  the  Traveller  and 
the  Roman  Citizen,  and  Cities  and  Bishopricks  of  Phrygia; 
McGiffert.  History  of  Christianity  in  the  Apostolic  Age ; 
Bartlet,  Vernon,  The  Apostolic  Age;  Stevens,  G.  B.,  The 
Theology  of  the  New  Testament-,  Weizsacker,  The  Apostolic  Age 
of  the  Christian  Church  (English  translation)  ;  articles  in 
Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  and  in  the  Encyclopaedia 
Biblica,  especially  Mr.  Turner's  article  in  the  former  on 
4  Chronology '  for  the  date  of  the  Epistle,  on  which  question 
see  also  Moffatt,  The  Historical  New  Testament. 


THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 

TO   THE 

THESSALONIANS 

AND 

GALATIANS 

AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 


THESSALONIANS 

Paul,  and  Silvanus,  and  Timotheus,  unto  the    Chap.i 
church  of  the  Thessalonians  which  is  in  God  the  saiuta- 
Father  and  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ :    Grace  be  tlon- 
unto  you,  and  peace,  from  God  our  Father,  and 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

We  give  thanks   to   God  always   for  you  all,  Thanks- 
making  mention  of  you  in  our  prayers  ;  remember-  Snappy 
ing  without  ceasing  your  work  of  faith,  and  labour  ^"^tion 
of  love,  and  patience  of  hope  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Tnessa- 
Christ,    in   the   sight   of  God    and    our    Father ; lonians- 
knowing,  brethren  beloved,  your  election  of  God. 
For  our  gospel  came  not  unto  you  in  word  only, 
but  also  in  power,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  in 
much  assurance  ;  as  ye  know  what  manner  of  men 
we  were  among  you  for  your  sake.    And  ye  became 
followers  of  us,  and  of  the  Lord,  having  received 
the  word  in  much  affliction,  with  joy  of  the  Holy 
Ghost :    so   that   ye   were   ensamples   to  all  that 
believe  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia.     For  from  you 
sounded  out  the  word  of  the  Lord  not  only  in 
Macedonia  and  Achaia,  but  also  in  every  place 
your  faith  to  God-ward  is  spread  abroad ;  so  that 
we    need    not   to   speak   any   thing.       For    they 


i34  I  THESSALONIANS 

Chap,  l    themselves  shew  of  us  what   manner  of  entering 

in  we  had  unto  you,  and  how  ye  turned  to  God 

from  idols  to  serve  the  living  and  true  God ;  and  10 
to  wait  for  his  Son  from  heaven,  whom  he  raised 
from   the   dead,   even   Jesus,   which  delivered   us 
from  the  wrath  to  come. 
Adescrip-       For  yourselves,  brethren,  know  our  entrance  in    2 

Apostle^  unt0  vou>  tnat  ft  was  not  m  vam  :  but  even  a^ter     2 
conduct  of  that  we  had  suffered  before,  and  were  shamefully 

his  mis-  t  '        "  .  1,1 

sionat       entreated,  as  ye  know,  at  Philippi,  we  were  bold 
ionicaf       m  our  God  to  speak  unto  you  the  gospel  of  God 

with  much  contention.     For  our  exhortation  was    3 
not  of  deceit,   nor  of  uncleanness,    nor  in  guile : 
but  as  we  were  allowed  of  God  to  be  put  in  trust    4 
with  the  gospel,  even  so  we  speak ;  not  as  pleasing 
men,    but   God,    which   trieth    our   hearts.       For     5 
neither  at  any  time  used  we  flattering  words,  as 
ye  know,   nor  a  cloke  of  covetousness ;    God  is 
witness  :    nor  of  men  sought  we  glory,  neither  of    6 
you,  nor  yet  of  others,  when  we  might  have  been 
burdensome,   as  the  apostles  of  Christ.     But  we    7 
were  gentle  among  you,  even  as  a  nurse  cherisheth 
her  children  :    so  being  affectionately  desirous  of    8 
you,  we  were  willing  to  have  imparted  unto  you, 
not  the  gospel  of  God  only,  but  also  our  own  souls, 
because  ye  were  dear  unto  us.     For  ye  remember,    9 
brethren,   our  labour  and  travail :    for   labouring 
night  and  day,  because  we  would  not  be  chargeable 
unto  any  of  you,  we  preached  unto  you  the  gospel 
of  God.     Ye  are  witnesses,    and   God  also,    how  10 
holily   and   justly   and   unblameably  we  behaved 
ourselves  among   you  that  believe :    as  ye  know  i  r 
how  we  exhorted  and  comforted  and  charged  every 


I  THESSALONIANS  135 

12  one  of  you,  as  a  father  doth  his  children,  that  ye    Chap.  2 
would  walk  worthy  of  God,  who  hath  called  you 

unto  his  kingdom  and  glory. 

13  For    this    cause    also   thank   we   God  without  Thanks- 
ceasing,  because,   when  ye  received  the  word  of  fhe^ay^ 
God  which  ye  heard  of  us,  ye  received  it  not  as  in  which 

,      /  ,  ...  ,  ,  the  Thes- 

the  word  of  men,  but  as  it  is  in  truth,  the  word  saionians 
of  God,  which  effectually  worketh  also  in  you  that  ceived"the 

14  believe.      For  ye,   brethren,   became  followers  of  apostolic 
che  churches  of  God  which  in  Judaea  are  in  Christ  m 
Jesus  :  for  ye  also  have  suffered  like  things  of  your 

own  countrymen,  even  as  they  have  of  the  Jews  : 

15  who  both  killed  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  their  own 
prophets,  and  have  persecuted  us  ;  and  they  please 

16  not  God,  and  are  contrary  to  all  men :  forbidding 
us  to  speak  to  the  Gentiles  that  they  might  be 
saved,  to  fill  up  their  sins  alway :  for  the  wrath 
is  come  upon  them  to  the  uttermost. 

17  But  we,  brethren,  being  taken  from  you  for  a  short  The  Apos- 
time  in  presence,  not  in  heart,  endeavoured  the  pointmenu 
more  abundantly  to  see  your  face  with  great  desire. 

18  Wherefore  we  would  have  come  unto  you,  even 
I  Paul,  once  and  again ;   but  Satan  hindered  us. 

19  For  what  is  our  hope,  or  joy,  or  crown  of  rejoicing  ? 
Are  not   even  ye  in  the  presence  of  our   Lord 

20  Jesus  Christ  at  his  coming?  For  ye  are  our 
glory  and  joy. 

3  Wherefore  when  we  could  no  longer  forbear,  Timothy's 
we  thought  it  good  to  be  left  at  Athens  alone ;  SUre? 

2  and  sent  Timotheus,   our   brother,   and   minister  P°rt* 
of  God,  and  our  fellowlabourer  in  the  gospel  of 
Christ,  to  establish  you,  and  to  comfort  you  con- 
cerning your  faith  : 


*3* 


I  THESSALONIANS 


Chap.  3 


A  fervent 
desire  for 
the  pro- 
gress of 
the  Thes- 
salonians. 


Exhorta- 
tion to 
purity  of 
life. 


That  no  man  should  be  moved  by  these  afflic-    3 
tions  :    for  yourselves  know  that  we  are  appointed 
thereunto.     For  verily,  when   we  were  with  you,    4 
we  told  you  before  that  we  should  suffer  tribulation  ; 
even  as  it  came  to  pass,  and  ye  know.     For  this     5 
cause,  when  I  could  no  longer  forbear,  I  sent  to 
know  your  faith,  lest  by  some  means  the  tempter 
have  tempted  you,  and  our  labour  be  in  vain. 

But  now  when  Timotheus  came  from  you  unto    6 
us,  and  brought  us  good  tidings  of  your  faith  and 
charity,  and  that  ye  have  good  remembrance  of 
us  always,  desiring  greatly  to  see  us,   as  we  also 
to  see  you  :  therefore,  brethren,  we  were  comforted     7 
over  you  in  all  our  affliction  and  distress  by  your 
faith  :  for  now  we  live,  if  ye  stand  fast  in  the  Lord.    8 
For  what  thanks  can  we  render  to  God  again  for    9 
you,  for  all  the  joy  wherewith  we  joy  for  your  sakes 
before    our    God;    night    and    day    praying    ex-  10 
ceedingly  that  we  might  see  your  face,  and  might 
perfect  that  which  is  lacking  in  your  faith  ?     Now  1 1 
God  himself  and  our  Father,  and  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  direct  our  way  unto  you.     And  the  Lord  12 
make   you  to  increase  and  abound  in  love  one 
toward  another,  and  toward  all  men,  even  as  we 
do  toward  you :    to  the  end  he  may  stablish  your  13 
hearts  unblameable  in  holiness  before  God,  even 
our  Father,  at  the  coming  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
with  all  his  saints. 

Furthermore   then   we   beseech   you,  brethren,    4 
and  exhort  you  by  the  Lord  Jesus,  that  as  ye  have 
received  of  us  how  ye  ought  to  walk  and  to  please 
God,  so  ye  would  abound  more  and  more.     For    2 
ye  know  what  commandments  we  gave  you  by  the 


I  THESSALONIANS  137 

3  Lord   Jesus.     For  this  is  the  will  of  God,  even    chap.  4 
your  sanctification,  that  ye  should  abstain  from 

4  fornication  :  that  every  one  of  you  should  know 
how   to   possess   his  vessel  in  sanctification  and 

5  honour;    not  in  the  lust  of  concupiscence,   even 

6  as  the  Gentiles  which  know  not  God:  that  no 
man  go  beyond  and  defraud  his  brother  in  any 
matter:  because  that  the  Lord  is  the  avenger  of 
all  such,  as  we   also   have   forewarned   you   and 

7  testified.      For    God    hath    not    called    us    unto 

8  uncleanness,    but   unto   holiness.      He    therefore 

that  despiseth,  despiseth  not  man,  but  God,  who 

hath  also  given  unto  us  his  holy  Spirit. 

o       But  as   touching   brotherly   love   ye   need  not  Exhorta- 
,  r  1  1     tion  to  m* 

that  I  write  unto  you  :  for  ye  yourselves  are  taught  crease  of 

10  of  God  to  love  one  another.     And  indeed  ye  do  JJJ'vSn'uie 
it  toward  all  the  brethren  which  are  in  all  Mace-  church 
donia :    but   we   beseech   you,    brethren,   that  ye  industry 
increase  more  and  more ;  world 

11  And  that  ye  study  to  be  quiet,  and  to  do  your 
own  business,  and  to  work  with  your  own  hands, 

1 2  as  we  commanded  you ;  that  ye  may  walk  honestly 
toward  them  that  are  without,  and  that  ye  may 
have  lack  of  nothing. 

13  But   I   would   not    have   you   to   be   ignorant,  The  Par 
brethren,  concerning  them  which  are  asleep,  that 

ye  sorrow  not,  even  as  others  which  have  no  hope. 

14  For  if  we  believe  that  Jesus  died  and  rose  again, 
even  so  them  also  which  sleep  in  Jesus  will  God 

1 5  bring  with  him.  For  this  we  say  unto  you  by  the 
word  of  the  Lord,  that  we  which  are  alive  and 
remain  unto  the  coming  of  the   Lord    shall    not 

16  prevent  them  which  are  asleep.      For  the  Lord 


138  I  THESSALONIANS 

Chap.  4    himself  shall  descend  from  heaven  with  a  shout, 
with  the  voice  of  the  archangel,  and  with  the  trump 
of  God :   and  the  dead  in  Christ  shall  rise  first : 
then    we   which   are   alive   and  remain    shall    be  17 
caught  up  together  with  them  in  the  clouds,  to 
meet  the  Lord  in  the  air :   and  so  shall  we  ever 
be  with  the  Lord.     Wherefore  comfort  one  another  18 
with  these  words. 
Sons  of  But  of  the  times  and  the  seasons,  brethren,  ye    5 

have  no  need  that  I  write  unto  you.     For  your-    2 
selves  know  perfectly  that  the  day  of  the  Lord  so 
cometh  as  a  thief  in  the  night.      For  when  they    3 
shall  say,  Peace  and  safety ;  then  sudden  destruc- 
tion cometh  upon  them,  as  travail  upon  a  woman 
with  child ;   and  they  shall  not  escape.      But  ye,     4 
brethren,  are  not  in  darkness,  that  that  day  should 
overtake  you  as  a  thief.     Ye  are  all  the  children    5 
of  light,  and  the  children  of  the  day :  we  are  not 
of  the  night,  nor  of  darkness.     Therefore  let  us    6 
not  sleep,  as  do  others ;  but  let  us  watch  and  be 
sober.     For  they  that  sleep  sleep  in   the  night ;    7 
and  they  that   be   drunken  are  drunken    in   the 
night.     But  let  us,  who  are  of  the  day,  be  sober,    S 
putting  on  the  breastplate  of  faith  and  love ;  and 
for  an  helmet,  the  hope  of  salvation.      For  God    9 
hath  not   appointed   us  to   wrath,   but   to  obtain 
salvation   by   our   Lord   Jesus    Christ,    who    died  10 
for  us,  that,  whether  we  wake  or  sleep,  we  should 
live  together  with  him.     Wherefore  comfort  your-  n 
selves  together,  and  edify  one  another,  even  as  also 
ye  do. 
Practical        And  we  beseech  you,  brethren,  to  know  them  12 
tioii?rta"     which  labour  among  you,  and  are  over  you  in  the 


I  THESSALONIANS  139 

13  Lord,  and  admonish  you;    and  to  esteem  them     Chap. 5 
very  highly  in  love  for  their  work's  sake. 

14  And  be  at  peace  among  yourselves.  Now  we 
exhort  you,  brethren,  warn  them  that  are  unruly, 
comfort  the  feebleminded,  support  the  weak,  be 

15  patient  toward  all  me?i.  See  that  none  render 
evil  for  evil  unto  any  man;  but  ever  follow  that 
which  is  good,  both  among  yourselves,  and  to 
all  men. 

17       Rejoice    evermore.       Pray     without     ceasing, 
a  8  In  every  thing  give  thanks :    for  this  is  the  will 
of  God  in  Christ  Jesus  concerning  you. 

20  Quench  not  the  Spirit.     Despise  not  prophesy- 

2 1  ings.     Prove  all  things ;    hold  fast  that  which  is 

22  good.     Abstain  from  all  appearance  of  evil. 

23  And  the  very  God  of  peace  sanctify  you  wholly ;  Conciu- 
and  /  pray  God  your  whole  spirit  and  soul  and  slon* 
body  be  preserved  blameless  unto  the  coming  of 

24  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  Faithful  is  he  that  calleth 
you,  who  also  will  do  it. 

26  Brethren,  pray  for  us.     Greet  all  the  brethren 

27  with  an  holy  kiss.  I  charge  you  by  the  Lord  that 
this  epistle  be  read  unto  all  the  holy  brethren. 

28  The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with 
you.     Amen. 

The   first  epistle  unto  the   Thessalonians  was 
written  from  Athens. 


THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 


THESSALONIANS 


Chap,  l  Paul,  and  Silvanus,  and  Timotheus,  unto  the 
SauTtaT  church  of  the  Thessalonians  in  God  our  Father 
tion.  an(j  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ :  Grace  unto  you,  and 

peace,  from  God  our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ. 
Congratu-  We  are  bound  to  thank  God  always  for  you, 
fidim/^  brethren,  as  it  is  meet,  because  that  your  faith 
under  dif-  groweth  exceedingly,  and  the  charity  of  every  one 
of  you  all  toward  each  other  aboundeth ;  so  that 
we  ourselves  glory  in  you  in  the  churches  of  God 
for  your  patience  and  faith  in  all  your  persecu- 
tions and  tribulations  that  ye  endure :  which  is  a 
manifest  token  of  the  righteous  judgment  of  God, 
that  ye  may  be  counted  worthy  of  the  kingdom 
of  God,  for  which  ye  also  suffer :  seeing  it  is  a 
righteous  thing  with  God  to  recompense  tribulation 
to  them  that  trouble  you;  and  to  you  who  are 
troubled  rest  with  us,  when  the  Lord  Jesus  shall  be 
revealed  from  heaven  with  his  mighty  angels,  in 
flaming  fire  taking  vengeance  on  them  that  know 
not  God,  and  that  obey  not  the  gospel  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ :   who  shall  be  punished  with  ever- 


II  THESSAL0N1ANS  141 

lasting  destruction  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,    Chap.  1 
:o  and  from  the  glory  of  his  power ;  when  he  shall 
come  to  be  glorified  in  his  saints,  and  to  be  ad- 
mired in  all  them  that  believe  (because  our  testi- 
mony among  you  was  believed)  in  that  day. 

1  Wherefore  also  we  pray  always  for  you,  that  our 
God  would  count  you  worthy  of  this  calling,  and 
fulfil  all  the  good  pleasure  of  his  goodness,  and 

2  the  work  of  faith  with  power:  that  the  name  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  may  be  glorified  in  you, 
and  ye  in  him,  according  to  the  grace  of  our  God 
and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

2       Now  we  beseech  you,  brethren,  by  the  coming  Mistake 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  by  our  gathering  to-  Parou'sia. 

2  gether  unto  him,  that  ye  be  not  soon  shaken  in 
mind,  or  be  troubled,  neither  by  spirit,  nor  by  word, 
nor  by  letter  as  from  us,  as  that  the  day  of  Christ 

3  is  at  hand.  Let  no  man  deceive  you  by  any 
means :  for  that  day  shall  not  come,  except  there 
come  a  falling  away  first,  and  that  man  of  sin  be 

4  revealed,  the  son  of  perdition  \  who  opposeth  and 
exalteth  himself  above  all  that  is  called  God,  or 
that  is  worshipped ;  so  that  he  as  God  sitteth  in 
the  temple  of  God,  shewing  himself  that  he  is  God. 

5  Remember  ye  not,  that,  when  I  was  yet  with  you, 

6  I  told  you  these  things?  And  now  ye  know  what 
withholdeth  that  he  might  be  revealed  in  his  time. 

7  For  the  mystery  of  iniquity  doth  already  work: 
only  he  who  now  letteth  will  let,  until  he  be  taken 

8  out  of  the  way.  And  then  shall  that  Wicked  be 
revealed,  whom  the  Lord  shall  consume  with  the 
spirit  of  his  mouth,  and  shall  destroy  with  the  bright- 

9  ness  of  his  coming :  even  him,  whose  coming  is 


t42  II  THESSALONIANS 

Chap.  2    after  the  working  of  Satan  with  all  power  and  signs 

and  lying  wonders,  and  with  all  deceivableness  of  10 
unrighteousness  in  them  that  perish  ;  because  they 
received  not  the  love  of  the  truth,  that  they  might 
be  saved.     And  for  this  cause  God  shall  send  them  1 1 
strong  delusion,  that  they  should  believe  a  lie  :  that  12 
they  all  might  be  damned  who  believed  not  the 
truth,  but  had  pleasure  in  unrighteousness. 
Further  But  we  are  bound  to  give  thanks  alway  to  God  13 

g*ivingSand  f°r  vou>   brethren  beloved  of  the  Lord,   because 
exhorta-     q0(j  nath  from  the  beginning  chosen  you  to  salva- 
tion through  sanctification  of  the  Spirit  and  belief 
of  the   truth  :  whereunto  he   called   you  by  our  14 
gospel,  to  the  obtaining  of  the  glory  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.     Therefore,  brethren,  stand  fast,  and  15 
hold  the  traditions  which  ye  have   been  taught, 
whether  by  word,  or  our  epistle.     Now  our  Lord  16 
Jesus  Christ  himself,  and  God,  even  our  Father, 
which  hath  loved  us,  and  hath  given  us  everlasting 
consolation  and  good  hope  through  grace,  comfort  17 
your  hearts,  and  stablish  you  in  every  good  word 
and  work. 
Prayer  Finally,  brethren,  pray  for  us,  that  the  word  of    3 

dence?n  "  tne  Lord  may  have  free  course,  and  be  glorified, 

even  as  it  is  with  you  :  and  that  we  may  be  de-     2 
livered  from  unreasonable  and  wicked  men  :  for 
all  men  have  not  faith. 

But  the  Lord  is  faithful,  who  shall  stablish  you,     3 
and  keep  you  from  evil.     And  we  have  confidence    4 
in  the  Lord  touching  you,  that  ye  both  do  and  will 
do  the  things  which  we  command  you.     And  the    5 
Lord  direct  your  hearts  into  the  love  of  God,  and 
into  the  patient  waiting  for  Christ. 


II  THESSALONIANS  143 

6  Now  we  command  you,  brethren,  in  the  name  of    chap.  3 

our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  ye  withdraw  yourselves      j 

from  every  brother  that  walketh   disorderly,  and  tion 

not  after  the  tradition  which  he  received  of  us.  disorderly 

7  For  yourselves  know  how  ye  ought  to  follow  us :  conduct, 
for  we  behaved  not   ourselves  disorderly  among 

8  you ;  neither  did  we  eat  any  man's  bread  for 
nought ;  but  wrought  with  labour  and  travail  night 
and  day,  that  we  might  not  be  chargeable  to  any 

9  of  you  :  not  because  we  have  not  power,  but  to 
make  ourselves  an  ensample  unto  you  to  follow  us. 

10  For  even  when  we  were  with  you,  this  we  com- 
manded you,  that  if  any  would  not  work,  neither 

11  should  he  eat.  For  we  hear  that  there  are  some 
which   walk   among  you   disorderly,   working   not 

12  at  all,  but  are  busybodies.  Now  them  that  are 
such  we  command  and  exhort  by  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,    that   with   quietness   they  work,  and  eat 

13  their  own  bread.     But  ye,  brethren,  be  not  weary 

14  in  well  doing.  And  if  any  man  obey  not  our 
word  by  this  epistle,  note  that  man,  and  have 
no  company  with  him,  that  he  may  be  ashamed. 

15  Yet  count  him  not  as  an  enemy,  but  admonish 
him  as  a  brother. 

16  Now  the  Lord  of  peace  himself  give  you  peace  Benedic- 
always  by  all  means.     The  Lord  be  with  you  all.      saiuS^ 

17  The  salutation  of  Paul  with  mine  own  hand,  tion. 
which  is  the  token  in  every  epistle :  so  I  write. 

18  The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  you 
all.     Amen. 

The   second   epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  was 
written  from  Athens. 


THE  EPISTLE  OF  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 


TO   THE 


GALATIANS 


Opening 

saluta- 
tion. 


Chap,  i        Paul,  an  apostle,  (not  of  men,  neither  by  man,    1 
but  by  Jesus  Christ,  and  God  the  Father,  who 
raised  him  from  the  dead ;)   and  all  the  brethren     2 
which  are  with  me,  unto  the  churches  of  Galatia : 
Grace  be  to  you  and  peace  from  God  the  Father,     3 
and  from  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  gave  himself    4 
for  our  sins,  that  he  might  deliver  us  from  this 
present  evil  world,  according  to  the  will  of  God 
and  our  Father :   to  whom  be  glory  for  ever  and    5 
ever.  Amen. 

I  marvel  that  ye  are  so  soon  removed  from  him    6 
that  called  you  into  the  grace  of  Christ  unto  an- 
other gospel :  which  is  not  another  ;  but  there  be    7 
some   that   trouble   you,   and  would   pervert  the 
gospel  of  Christ.      But  though  we,  or  an  angel    8 
from  heaven,  preach  any  other  gospel  unto  you 
than  that  which  we  have  preached  unto  you,  let 
him  be  accursed.     As  we  said  before,  so  say  I  now    9 
again,  If  any  man  preach  any  other  gospel  unto 
you  than  that  ye  have  received,  let  him  be  accursed. 
For  do  I  now  persuade  men,  or  God?    or  do  I  10 
seek  to  please  men?    for  if  I  yet  pleased  men, 
I  should  not  be  the  servant  of  Christ. 


The  Gala 
tian  per- 
version. 


GALATIANS  145 

n       But   I   certify   you,    brethren,    that   the   gospel    Chap.  1 

1 2  which  was  preached  of  me  is  not  after  man.     For  Pau^~~ 
I  neither  received  it  of  man,  neither  was  I  taught  account 

13  it,  but  by  the  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ.     For  ye  conver- 
have  heard  of  my  conversation  in   time   past  in  sion* 
the  Jews'  religion,   how  that  beyond   measure  I 
persecuted   the   church  of  God,    and   wasted   it: 

14  and  profited  in  the  Jews'  religion  above  many  my 
equals  in  mine  own  nation,  being  more  exceedingly 

15  zealous  of  the  traditions  of  my  fathers.  But  when 
it    pleased    God,    who    separated    me    from    my 

16  mother's  womb,  and  called  me  by  his  grace,  to 
reveal  his  Son  in  me,  that  I  might  preach  him 
among    the    heathen ;    immediately    I    conferred 

1 7  not  with  flesh  and  blood :  neither  went  I  up 
to  Jerusalem  to  them  which  were  apostles  before 
me;  but  I  went  into  Arabia,  and  returned  again 

18  unto  Damascus.      Then  after  three  years  I  went  First  visit 
up  to  Jerusalem  to  see   Peter,  and  abode  with  saiem.U 

19  him  fifteen  days.     But  other  of  the  apostles  saw 

20  I  none,  save  James  the  Lord's  brother.  Now 
the    things    which    I    write    unto    you,    behold, 

21  before  God,  I  lie  not.      Afterwards  I  came  into 

22  the  regions  of  Syria  and  Cilicia;  and  was  un- 
known by  face  unto  the  churches  of  Judaea  which 

23  were  in  Christ :  but  they  had  heard  only,  That 
he  which  persecuted  us  in  times  past  now  preacheth 

24  the  faith  which  once  he  destroyed.  And  they 
glorified  God  in  me. 

2       Then  fourteen  years  after  I  went  up  again  to  Another 
Jerusalem  with  Barnabas,  and  took  Titus  with  me  jS-usaiem. 

2  also.  And  I  went  up  by  revelation,  and  com- 
municated unto  them  that  gospel  which  I  preach 
W  L 


146  GA1ATIANS 

Chap.  2    among  the  Gentiles,  but  privately  to  them  which 
were  of  reputation,  lest  by  any  means   I   should 
run,  or  had  run,  in  vain.     But  neither  Titus,  who    3 
was  with  me,  being  a  Greek,  was  compelled  to  be 
circumcised :    and  that  because  of  false  brethren    4 
unawares  brought  in,  who  came  in  privily  to  spy 
out  our  liberty  which  we  have   in   Christ  Jesus, 
that  they  might  bring  us  into  bondage  :  to  whom     5 
we  gave  place  by  subjection,  no,  not  for  an  hour ; 
that  the  truth  of  the  gospel  might  continue  with 
you.     But  of  these  who  seemed  to  be  somewhat,     6 
(whatsoever  they  were,  it  maketh  no  matter  to  me  : 
God  accepteth  no  man's  person  :)    for  they  who 
seemed   to  be  somewhat  in  conference  added  no- 
thing  to   me :    but   contrariwise,   when  they  saw     7 
that  the  gospel  of  the  uncircumcision  was  com- 
mitted unto  me,  as  the  gospel  of  the  circumcision 
was  unto  Peter;    (for  he  that  wrought  effectually    8 
in  Peter  to  the  apostleship  of  the  circumcision, 
the  same  was  mighty  in  me  toward  the  Gentiles  :) 
and  when  James,  Cephas,  and  John,  who  seemed    9 
to  be  pillars,  perceived  the  grace  that  was  given 
unto  me,  they  gave  to  me  and  Barnabas  the  right 
hands  of  fellowship ;    that  we  slwuld  go  unto  the 
heathen,  and  they  unto  the  circumcision.      Only  10 
they  wou/d  that  we  should  remember  the  poor; 
the  same  which  I  also  was  forward  to  do. 
Dispute  But  when  Peter  was  come  to  Antioch,  I  with-  it 

with  Peter.  st00<3  nim  to  tjie  faCGj  because  he  was  to  be  blamed. 

For  before  that  certain  came  from  James,  he  did  1 2 
eat  with  the  Gentiles :  but  when  they  were  come, 
he  withdrew  and  separated  himself,  fearing  them 
which  were  of  the  circumcision.     And  the  other  14 


GALATIANS  147 

Jews    dissembled   likewise   with   him ;    insomuch    Chap.  2 
that    Barnabas  also  was  carried  away  with  their 

14  dissimulation.  But  when  I  saw  that  they  walked 
not  uprightly  according  to  the  truth  of  the  gospel, 
I  said  unto  Peter  before  them  all,  If  thou,  being 
a  Jew,  livest  after  the  manner  of  Gentiles,  and 
not  as   do   the   Jews,   why   compellest   thou   the 

15  Gentiles  to  live  as  do  the  Jews?     We  who  are  The  new 
Jews  by  nature,  and  not  sinners  of  the  Gentiles,  JjJr^t# 

16  knowing  that  a  man  is  not  justified  by  the  works 
of  the  law,  but  by  the  faith  of  Jesus  Christ,  even 
we  have  believed  in  Jesus  Christ,  that  we  might 
be  justified  by  the  faith  of  Christ,  and  not  by 
the  works  of  the  law :    for  by  the  works  of  the 

17  law  shall  no  flesh  be  justified.  But  if,  while  we 
seek  to  be  justified  by  Christ,  we  ourselves  also 
are  found  sinners,  is  therefore  Christ  the  minister 

18  of  sin?  God  forbid.  For  if  I  build  again  the 
things  which  I  destroyed,  I  make  myself  a  trans- 

19  gressor.     For  I  through  the  law  am  dead  to  the 

20  law,  that  I  might  live  unto  God.  I  am  crucified 
with  Christ :  nevertheless  I  live ;  yet  not  I,  but 
Christ  liveth  in  me :  and  the  life  which  I  now 
live  in  the  flesh  I  live  by  the  faith  of  the  Son  of 
God,   who  loved  me,  and  gave  himself  for  me. 

2 1  I  do  not  frustrate  the  grace  of  God :  for  if 
righteousness  come  by  the  law,  then  Christ  is  dead 
in  vain. 

3       O  foolish  Galatians,  who  hath  bewitched  you,  An  appeal 
that  ye  should  not  obey  the  truth,  before  whose  ence*Pe" 
eyes  Jesus  Christ  hath  been  evidently  set  forth, 

2  crucified  among  you?  This  only  would  I  learn 
of  you,  Received  ye  the  Spirit  by  the  works  of 
(9)  l   2 


148  GALATIANS 

Chap.  3    the  law,  or  by  the  hearing  of  faith  ?    Are  ye  so    3 
foolish  ?    having  begun  in  the  Spirit,  are  ye  now 
made  perfect  by  the  flesh  ?    Have  ye  suffered  so    4 
many  things   in  vain  ?    if  it  be  yet  in  vain.     He    5 
therefore  that  ministereth  to  you  the  Spirit,   and 
worketh  miracles  among  you,  doeth  he  it  by  the 
works  of  the  law,  or  by  the  hearing  of  faith  ? 
The  ex-  Even  as  Abraham  believed  God,   and   it   was    6 

Abraham.  accounted  to  him  for  righteousness.       Know  ye    7 
therefore  that  they  which  are  of  faith,  the  same 
are  the  children  of  Abraham. 

And  the  scripture,  foreseeing  that  God  would    8 
justify  the  heathen  through  faith,  preached  before 
the  gospel  unto  Abraham,   saying,    In  thee  shall 
all  nations  be  blessed.     So  then  they  which  be  of    9 
faith  are  blessed  with  faithful  Abraham. 
The  curse       For  as  many  as  are  of  the  works  of  the  law  are  10 
of  the  law.  un(jer  tne  curse  :  for  it  is  written,  Cursed  is  every 
one  that  continueth  not   in  all  things  which  are 
written  in  the  book  of  the  law  to  do  them. 

But  that  no  man  is  justified  by  the  law  in  the  n 
sight  of  God,  it  is  evident :    for,   The  just  shall 
live  by  faith.     And  the  law  is  not  of  faith:  but,  12 
The  man  that  doeth  them  shall  live  in  them. 

Christ  hath  redeemed  us  from  the  curse  of  the  13 
law,  being  made  a  curse  for  us :    for  it  is  written, 
Cursed  is  every  one  that  hangeth  on  a  tree :  that  14 
the  blessing  of  Abraham  might  come  on  the  Gen- 
tiles through  Jesus  Christ ;  that  we  might  receive 
the  promise  of  the  Spirit  through  faith. 
The  Brethren,   I   speak  after  the  manner   of  men ;  15 

covenant.   Though  it  be  but  a  man's  covenant,  yet  if  it  be 
confirmed,  no  man  disannulled!,  or  addeth  thereto. 


GALATIANS  149 

16  Now  to  Abraham  and  his  seed  were  the  promises    Chap.  3 
made.     He  saith  not,  And  to  seeds,  as  of  many ; 

but  as  of  one,  And  to  thy  seed,  which  is  Christ. 

17  And  this  I  say,  that  the  covenant,  that  was  con- 
firmed before  of  God  in  Christ,  the  law,  which 
was  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  after,  cannot 
disannul,  that  it  should  make  the  promise  of  none 

iS  effect.  For  if  the  inheritance  be  of  the  law,  it  is 
no  more  of  promise :  but  God  gave  it  to  Abraham 
by  promise. 

19  Wherefore  then  serveth  the  law  ?   It  was  added  Thf  Place 

and  func- 

because   of  transgressions,    till   the   seed   should  tkm  of  the 
come  to  whom  the  promise  was  made ;  and  it  was  law" 
ordained  by  angels  in  the  hand  of  a  mediator. 

20  Now  a  mediator  is  not  a  mediator  of  one,  but  God 
is  one. 

21  Is  the  law  then  against  the  promises  of  God? 
God  forbid :  for  if  there  had  been  a  law  given 
which  could  have  given  life,  verily  righteousness 

22  should  have  been  by  the  law.  But  the  scripture 
hath  concluded  all  under  sin,  that  the  promise  by 
faith  of  Jesus  Christ  might  be  given  to  them  that 

23  believe.  But  before  faith  came,  we  were  kept 
under    the    law,    shut   up   unto   the   faith   which 

24  should  afterwards  be  revealed.  Wherefore  the 
law  was  our  schoolmaster  to  bring  us  unto  Christ, 
that  we  might  be  justified  by  faith. 

25  But  after  that  faith  is  come,  we  are  no  longer 

26  under  a  schoolmaster.     For  ye  are  all  the  children 

27  of  God  by  faith  in  Christ  Jesus.  For  as  many  of 
you  as  have  been  baptized  into  Christ  have  put 

28  on  Christ.  There  is  neither  Jew  nor  Greek,  there 
is  neither  bond  nor  free,  there  is  neither  male  nor 


150  GALATIANS 

Chap.  3    female :  for  ye  are  all  one  in  Christ  Jesus.     And  29 
if  ye  be  Christ's,  then  are  ye  Abraham's  seed,  and 
heirs  according  to  the  promise. 
Sonship.         Now  I  say,  That  the  heir,  as  long  as  he  is  a  child,    4 
diftereth    nothing  from  a  servant,  though  he  be 
lord   of  all;    but  is  under  tutors  and  governors     2 
until  the  time  appointed  of  the  father.     Even  so    3 
we,  when  we  were  children,  were  in  bondage  under 
the  elements  of  the  world :  but  when  the  fulness    4 
of  the  time  was  come,  God  sent  forth  his  Son, 
made  of  a  woman,  made  under  the  law,  to  redeem    5 
them  that  were  under  the  law,  that  we  might  receive 
the  adoption  of  sons.     And  because  ye  are  sons,    6 
God  hath  sent  forth  the  Spirit  of  his  Son  into 
your   hearts,    crying,    Abba,    Father.      Wherefore    7 
thou  art  no  more  a  servant,  but  a  son ;  and  if  a 
son,  then  an  heir  of  God  through  Christ. 
The  return      Howbeit  then,  when  ye  knew  not  God,  ye  did    8 
bondage^*    serv"ice  unto  them  which  by  nature  are  no  gods. 

But  now,  after  that  ye  have  known  God,  or  rather    9 
are  known  of  God,  how  turn  ye  again  to  the  weak 
and  beggarly  elements,  whereunto  ye  desire  again 
to  be  in  bondage?  Ye  observe  days,  and  months,  10 
and  times,  and  years.     I  am  afraid  of  you,   lest  ir 
I  have  bestowed  upon  you  labour  in  vain. 
Theeariier      Brethren,  I  beseech  you,  be  as  I  am;  for  I  am  12 
between7  as  ve  are  '•    ve  have  not  injured  me  at  all.     Ye  13 
Paul  and    know  how  through  infirmity  of  the  flesh  I  preached 
tians.         the  gospel  unto  you  at  the  first.     And  my  tempta-  14 
tion  which  was  in  my  flesh  ye  despised  not,  nor 
rejected ;    but  received  me  as  an  angel  of  God, 
even  as  Christ  Jesus.     Where  is  then  the  blessed-  15 
ness  ye  spake  of?   for  I  bear  you  record,  that,  if 


GALATIANS  151 

it  had  been  possible,  ye  would  have  plucked  out    Chap.  4 
your   own   eyes,    and   have   given   them    to    me. 

16  Am  I  therefore  become  your  enemy,   because  I 

17  tell  you  the  truth?  They  zealously  affect  you,  but 
not  well;    yea,  they  would  exclude  you,  that  ye 

1 3  might  affect  them.  But  it  is  good  to  be  zealously 
affected  always   in  a  good   thing,    and   not   only 

19  when  I  am  present  with  you.  My  little  children, 
of  whom  I  travail  in  birth  again  until  Christ  be 

20  formed  in  you,  I  desire  to  be  present  with  you 
now,  and  to  change  my  voice;  for  I  stand  in 
doubt  of  you. 

21  Tell  me,  ye  that  desire  to  be  under  the  law,  Theaiie- 

22  do  ye  not  hear  the  law?    For  it  is  written,  that  Hagar! 
Abraham  had  two  sons,  the  one  by  a  bondmaid, 

23  the  other  by  a  freewoman.  But  he  who  was  of 
the  bondwoman  was  born  after  the  flesh ;  but  he 

24  of  the  freewoman  was  by  promise.  Which  things 
are  an  allegory :  for  these  are  the  two  covenants ; 
the  one  from  the  mount  Sinai,  which  gendereth 

25  to  bondage,  which  is  Agar.  For  this  Agar  is 
mount  Sinai  in  Arabia,  and  answereth  to  Jerusa- 
lem which  now  is,  and  is  in  bondage  with  her 

26  children.     But  Jerusalem  which  is  above  is  free, 

27  which  is  the  mother  of  us  all.  For  it  is  written, 
Rejoice,  thou  barren  that  bearest  not;  break 
forth  and  cry,  thou  that  travailest  not:  for  the 
desolate  hath  many  more  children  than  she  which 

28  hath  an  husband.      Now  we,  brethren,  as  Isaac 

29  was,  are  the  children  of  promise.  But  as  then 
he  that  was  born  after  the  flesh  persecuted  him 
that  was  born  after  the  Spirit,  even  so  it  is  now. 

30  Nevertheless  what  saith  the  scripture?    Cast  out 


152  GALATIANS 

Chap.  4    the  bondwoman  and  her  son  :  for  the  son  of  the 
bondwoman  shall  not  be  heir  with  the  son  of  the 
freewoman.     So  then,  brethren,  we  are  not  children  31 
of  the  bondwoman,  but  of  the  free. 

Stand  fast  therefore  in   the   liberty   wherewith    5 
Christ  hath  made  us  free,  and  be  not  entangled 
The  dan-    again  with  the  yoke  of  bondage.     Behold,  I  Paul    2 

judafzing.  say  unto  y°u'  tnat  ^  ye  be  circumcised,   Christ 

shall  profit  you  nothing.      For  I  testify  again  to    3 
every  man  that  is  circumcised,  that  he  is  a  debtor 
to  do  the  whole  law.     Christ  is  become  of  no    4 
effect  unto  you,  whosoever  of  you   are  justified 
by  the  law;    ye  are  fallen  from  grace.      For  we    5 
through  the  Spirit  wait  for  the  hope  of  righteous- 
ness by  faith.     For  in  Jesus  Christ  neither  circum-    6 
cision   availeth   any   thing,    nor    uncircumcision ; 
but  faith  which  worketh  by  love.      Ye  did  run    7 
well;    who   did   hinder  you   that  ye  should  not 
obey  the  truth?    This  persuasion  cometh  not  of    S 
him  that  calleth  you.      A  little  leaven  leaveneth    9 
the  whole  lump. 

I  have  confidence  in  you   through   the  Lord,  10 
that  ye  will  be  none  otherwise  minded :    but  he 
that  troubleth  you  shall  bear  his  judgment,  who- 
soever he  be.      And  I,  brethren,  if  I  yet  preach  n 
circumcision,  why  do   I   yet   suffer  persecution? 
then  is  the  offence  of  the  cross  ceased.     I  would  12 
they  were  even  cut  off  which  trouble  you. 
Love  the        For,  brethren,  ye  have  been  called  unto  liberty ;  13 
of  theTaw.  onty  use  not  liberty  for  an  occasion  to  the  flesh, 

but  by  love  serve  one  another.      For  all  the* law  14 
is  fulfilled  in  one  word,  even  in  this ;  Thou  shalt 
love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself.     But  if  ye  bite  and  15 


GALATIANS  153 

devour  one  another,   take  heed   that   ye  be  not    Chap.  5 
consumed  one  of  another. 

16  This  I  say  then,   Walk  in  the  Spirit,   and  ye  The  Spirit 

1 7  shall   not   fulfil   the   lust  of  the  flesh.      For  the  ^h.  e 
flesh   lusteth   against   the   Spirit,   and    the   Spirit 
against  the  flesh :   and  these  are  contrary  the  one 

to  the  other :    so  that  ye  cannot  do  the  things 

18  that  ye  would.      But  if  ye  be  led  of  the  Spirit, 

19  ye  are  not  under  the  law.  Now  the  works  of 
the  flesh  are  manifest,  which  are  these ;  Adultery, 

20  fornication,  uncleanness,  lasciviousness,  idolatry, 
witchcraft,    hatred,    variance,    emulations,    wrath, 

21  strife,  seditions,  heresies,  envyings,  murders, 
drunkenness,  revellings,  and  such  like:  of  the 
which  I  tell  you  before,  as  I  have  also  told  you 
in   time   past,    that   they   which   do   such   things 

22  shall  not  inherit  the  kingdom  of  God.  But  the 
fruit  of  the  Spirit  is  love,  joy,  peace,  longsuffering, 

23  gentleness,  goodness,  faith,  meekness,  temperance  : 

24  against  such  there  is  no  law.  And  they  that 
are   Christ's   have   crucified   the    flesh    with    the 

25  affections  and  lusts.     If  we  live  in  the  Spirit,  let 

26  us  also  walk  in  the  Spirit.  Let  us  not  be  desirous 
of  vain  glory,  provoking  one  another,  envying  one 
another. 

8       Brethren,  if  a  man  be  overtaken  in  a  fault,  ye  On  tmr- 
which  are  spiritual,  restore  such  an  one  in  the  ing#"  ear" 
spirit  of  meekness ;  considering  thyself,  lest  thou 

2  also  be  tempted.     Bear  ye  one  another's  burdens, 

3  and  so  fulfil  the  law  of  Christ.      For  if  a  man 
think  himself  to  be  something,  when  he  is  nothing, 

4  he  deceiveth  himself.      But  let  every  man  prove 
his  own  work,  and  then  shall  he  have  rejoicing  in 


154  GALATIANS 

Chap.  6    himself  alone,  and  not  in   another.      For   every    5 
man  shall  bear  his  own  burden. 

On  well-  Let  him  that  is  taught  in  the  word  communicate    6 

unto  him  that  teacheth  in  all  good  things.      Be     7 
not  deceived ;  God  is  not  mocked  :  for  whatsoever 
a  man  soweth,  that  shall  he  also  reap.      For  he    8 
that  soweth  to  his   flesh  shall  of  the  flesh  reap 
corruption ;  but  he  that  soweth  to  the  Spirit  shall 
of  the  Spirit  reap  life  everlasting.     And  let  us  not    9 
be  weary  in  well  doing :  for  in  due  season  we  shall 
reap,  if  we  faint  not.     As  we  have  therefore  oppor-  10 
tunity,  let  us  do  good  unto  all  ;/ie/t,  especially  unto 
them  who  are  of  the  household  of  faith. 

Concia-  Ye  see  how  large  a  letter  I  have  written  unto  n 

written  by  you  with  mine  own  hand. 

himself  ^s  manv  as  desire  to  make  a  fair  shew  in  the  12 

flesh,  they  constrain  you  to  be  circumcised ;  only 
lest  they  should  suffer  persecution  for  the  cross 
of  Christ.     For  neither  they  themselves  who  are  13 
circumcised  keep  the  law ;  but  desire  to  have  you 
circumcised,  that  they  may  glory  in  your  flesh. 

But  God  forbid  that  I  should  glory,  save  in  the  14 
cross   of  our   Lord   Jesus  Christ,   by  whom  the 
world  is  crucified  unto  me,  and  I  unto  the  world. 
For  in  Christ  Jesus  neither  circumcision  availeth  15 
any  thing,  nor  uncircumcision,  but  a  new  creature. 
And  as  many  as  walk  according  to  this  rule,  peace  16 
be  on  them,  and  mercy,  and  upon  the   Israel  of 
God.      From  henceforth  let  no  man  trouble  me :  17 
for  I  bear  in  my  body  the  marks  of  the  Lord  Jesus. 

Brethren,  the  grace  of  our   Lord  Jesus  Christ   18 
he  with  your  spirit.  Amen. 

Unto  the  Galatians  written  from  Rome. 


THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 

TO    THE 

THESSALONIANS 

AND 

GALATIANS 

REVISED  VERSION  WITH  ANNOTATIONS 


THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 

TO   THE 

THESSALONIANS 

Paul,  and  Silvanus,  and  Timothy,  unto  the  church  of  1 

i.  i.  Salutation.  Paul  and  his  two  companions  salute  the 
Thessalonian  church,  wishing  them  grace  and  peace. 

1.  Paul.  The  name  is  given  without  any  title.  This  is  quite 
unusual  in  Paul's  Epistles.  In  all  other  cases,  except  the  Second 
Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  there  is  some  descriptive  name  or 
phrase.  Usually  Paul  designates  himself  an  'apostle,'  sometimes 
very  emphatically,  as  'an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ  through  the  will 
of  God,'  '  an  apostle  not  from  men,  neither  through  men,  but 
through  Jesus  Christ,  and  God  the  Father,'  &c.  In  writing  to 
the  Romans  and  to  Titus  he  also  describes  himself  as  '  a  servant 
of  Jesus  Christ/  and  '  of  God  ' ;  and  in  writing  to  the  Philippians 
he  unites  the  name  of  Timothy  with  his  own  name,  describing  both 
as  '  servants  of  Christ  Jesus ' ;  in  this  case,  the  only  one  beside 
the  letters  to  the  Thessalonians  and  that  to  Philemon,  he  does  not 
name  himself  as  an  apostle.  In  the  beautiful  little  Epistle  to 
Philemon— quite  a  private  letter— he  is  simply  '  a  prisoner  of  Jesus 
Christ.'     Thus  out  of  the  thirteen  Epistles — 

In  nine  Epistles  Paul  introduces  himself  as  an  '  apostle.' 

In  two  of  these  he  is  also  a  'servant.' 

In  one,  joined  with  Timothy,  he  is  only  a  'servant.' 

In  one  he  is  a  'prisoner  of  Christ  Jesus.' 

In  two  he  appears  without  any  title. 
The  omission  of  the  title  in  the  two  Thessalonian  letters  implies 
that  when  he  wrote  them  he  had  no  reason  to  assert  his  claims. 
This  was  early,  before  the  opposition  of  Judaizing  Christians  had 
arisen. 

Silvanus :  a  lengthier  form  of  the  name  '  Silas,'  and  indicating 


158  I  THESSALONIANS  1.  i 

the  Thessalonians  in  God  the  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ :  Grace  to  you  and  peace. 

Paul's  travelling  companion,  of  whom  we  read  in  Acts  under  that 
name.  He  had  been  a  prominent  member  of  the  Jerusalem  church, 
and  as  such  he  was  sent,  together  with  another  member  named 
Judas,  by  the  apostles  and  elders  of  that  church  to  Antioch 
with  Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  return,  in  order  to  convey  the 
answer  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  to  a  momentous  question 
on  which  the  Antioch  Christians  had  sought  advice.  Paul  having 
had  a  difference  of  opinion  with  Barnabas,  his  travelling  companion, 
on  what  we  call  his  'first  missionary  journey,'  chose  Silas  instead 
for  the  second  journey,  that  in  which,  having  travelled  through 
Asia  Minor,  he  crossed  to  Europe.  Thus  Silas  was  with  the 
Apostle  when  the  Thessalonians — who  were  evangelized  during 
this  mission — received  the  gospel.  He  remained  behind  at  Bercea 
when  the  Apostle  went  on  to  Athens,  and  joined  Paul  later  at 
Corinth.  There  he  took  an  active  part  in  preaching  the  gospel. 
Possibly  he  was  with  Peter  some  years  later,  as  the  name  Sil- 
vanus  occurs  in  i  Pet.  v.  12,  an  epistle  directed  to  Christians 
residing  in  districts  that  Silvanus  had  traversed  when  he 
was  Paul's  travelling  companion.  There  is  a  tradition  that 
Silvanus  was  bishop  of  Thessalonica,  but  it  is  late  and  of  little 
value. 

Timothy :  named  last  as  junior  to  Silvanus.  Paul's  favourite, 
most  trusted,  and  most  useful  disciple  and  helper.  The  son  of 
a  Greek  father  and  a  Jewess  mother  named  Eunice  (Acts  xvi.  1; 
2  Tim.  i.  5\  he  had  been  trained  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  when 
he  first  met  Paul.  He  was  living  at  Lystra,  and  apparently  he  was 
there  won  to  the  Christian  faith  by  the  preaching  of  the  Apostle 
during  the  first  missionary  tour  in  Asia  Minor.  On  his  second 
visit  to  Lystra  Paul  took  Timothy  to  be  his  personal  attendant 
and  fellow  worker,  according  to  'Acts'  first  having  him  submit 
to  the  Jewish  rite  of  initiation,  that  he  might  be  received  among 
the  Jews.  He  accompanied  the  Apostle  to  Europe,  and  was 
present  at  the  founding  of  the  church  in  Thessalonica,  and 
he  remained  behind  at  Beroea  when  Paul  hurried  on  to  Athens. 
There  he  joined  the  Apostle,  to  be  sent  back,  however,  to 
Thessalonica,  as  our  Epistle  shews  (iii.  1,  2).  He  had  just  returned 
a  second  time  to  the  company  of  Paul,  coming  up  with  him  at 
Corinth,  when  this  letter  was  written.  It  is  therefore  most 
appropriate  for  Timothy's  name  to  appear  in  the  salutation  of  an 
Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians.  The  three  names — Paul,  Silvanus, 
and  Timothy — recur  precisely  in  the  same  way  in  the  opening  of 
2  Thessalonians. 

the    church   of  the    Thessalonians.      The   word    ecclesia, 


I  THESSALONIANS   1;  i  159 

rendered  '  church,'  was  the  name  of  the  lawful  assembly  of  free 
citizens  in  a  Greek  city.  But  it  seems  to  have  come  to  be 
employed  loosely  for  an  assembly  of  any  kind,  in  accordance 
with  the  less  accurate  usage  of  later  Greek,  for  we  find  this  name 
given  to  the  riotous  mob  at  Ephesus  in  Acts  xix.  32,  41.  In  the 
O.  T.  it  is  used  for  the  assembly  of  the  Israelites, '  the  congregation 
of  Israel.'  It  only  occurs  at  two  places  in  the  gospels,  both  of 
them  being  in  Matthew  (i.e.  xvi.  18,  and  xviii.  17).  We  meet 
with  it  frequently  in  Acts,  the  Epistles,  and  the  Apocalypse. 
Most  commonly  it  is  used  for  a  local  community  of  Christians, 
defined  by  the  town  in  which  it  is  situated.  It  is  used  in  this 
sense  here  ;  '  the  church  of  the  Thessalonians '  is  the  Christian 
community  at  Thessalonica.  In  Ephesians  and  Colossians  the 
Apostle  uses  the  word  '  church  '  for  the  communion  or  mystical 
assembly  of  all  Christians.  In  that  sense  of  the  word  there 
is  but  one  church,  geographically  coextensive  with  Christen- 
dom, but  everywhere  limited  by  individual  discipleship  to  Jesus 
Christ. 

the  Thessalonians.     See  Introduction,  p.  5ff. 

in :  a  preposition  very  extensively  used  by  Paul  to  express 
the  idea  of  mystical  union  between  God  or  Christ  and  Christian 
people.  They  are  so  closely  united  to  God  and  Christ,  so  much 
under  Divine  influence,  so  entirely  drawing  their  life  from  above, 
that  they  are  said  to  live  in  the  Divine  Being. 

God  the  Father:  a  peculiarly  Christian  name  for  God, 
consequent  on  our  Lord's  revelation  of  the  Fatherhood  of  God. 
This  Paul  had  made  known  to  the  Thessalonians. 

the  Iiord  Jesus  Christ.  The  first  title, '  the  Lord,'  is  one  of 
honour  and  reverence,  carrying  with  it  a  confession  of  loyalty 
from  the  servant  who  uses  it.  'Jesus '  is  the  personal  name  by 
which  our  Lord  was  known  among  all  acquaintances  from  his 
childhood.  'Christ'  is  just  the  Greek  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
1  Messiah,'  literally  the  '  Anointed-one,'  but  in  usage  meaning  the 
expected  Deliverer  and  King  of  Israel.  With  Paul  it  has  become 
a  surname  of  Jesus. 

Grace :  an  echo  of  the  Greek  salutation — '  All  hail ! '  but  with 
a  Christian  meaning.  The  word  in  N.  T.  usage  means  the  free 
favour  of  God  and  its  happy  effects,  manifested  in  the  Christian 
gospel. 

peace :  an  echo  of  the  Hebrew  salutation — the  *  Salaam  ! ' 
but  having  a  deepening  of  its  meaning  with  Christian  ideas, 
Christians  having  the  privilege  of  peace  with  God  and  peace 
in  their  own  hearts  and  in  their  happy  relations  one  with 
another. 

The  additional  clause  in  the  A.  V.,  'from  God  our  Father,  and 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,'  is  omitted  by  the  Revisers  as  it  is  absent 
from  some  of  the  best  MSS.,  though  found  in  others.    There  could 


160  I  THESSALONIANS   1.  2,3 

2  We  give  thanks  to  God   always   for  you  all,  making 

3  mention  of  you  in  our  prayers ;  remembering  without 
ceasing  your  work  of  faith  and  labour  of  love  and 
patience  of  hope  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  before  our 

be  no  reason  for  cutting  it  out.  But  it  may  easily  have  been 
inserted  by  some  scribe  copying  the  Second  Epistle,  where  it  stands 
on  undoubted  MSS.  authority. 

i.  2-10.  Thanksgiving  for  the  happy  condition  of  the  Thessalonians. 
Paul  thanks  God  for  the  graces  seen  in  the  Thessalonians. 
They  prove  that  his  preaching  has  not  been  ineffectual.  These 
people,  manifesting  joy  in  spite  of  persecution,  have  become  an 
example  to  others  north  and  south  of  them,  the  word  of  the 
gospel  thus  sounding  out  from  Thessalonica  in  both  directions ; 
and  thus  the  report  of  their  conversion  has  come  round  to  the 
Apostle  from  Macedonia  and  Achaia. 

2.  We:  not  the 'editorial  we,' but  meaning  the  Apostle  together 
with  Silvanus  and  Timothy.  This  plural  continually  recurs 
throughout  the  Epistle,  and  for  the  same  reason.  Still,  it  is  used 
in  courtesy,  not  because  the  two  companions  are  really  joint 
authors  with  the  Apostle.     It  is  Paul's  Epistle. 

for  you  :  lit.  i  about '  or  '  concerning  you.' 

3.  Paul  here  mentions  the  three  Christian  graces  of  which  he 
writes  later  in  1  Cor.  xiii.  1.  In  both  cases  he  names  faith  first, 
not  for  its  pre-eminent  importance,  because  in  Corinthians  he 
expressly  gives  the  palm  to  love,  but  no  doubt  because  he  regards 
it  as  coming  earlier  in  experience  than  the  other  graces,  and  in 
a  measure  laying  the  foundation  for  them.  In  the  passage  before 
us  the  graces  are  not  by  themselves,  but  associated  with  their 
fruits.  It  is  these  fruits  that  the  Apostle  describes  himself  as 
remembering.  They  are  more  concrete  and  perceptible  than  the 
graces,  but  they  are  valued  as  evidences  of  the  existence  of  those 
graces. 

work  of  faith :  work  that  springs  from  faith,  or  is  characterized 
by  faith. 

labour  of  love :  '  labour  '  is  a  stronger  word  than  ■  work.'  In 
the  Greek  original,  as  well  as  in  the  English  translation,  the  term 
used  points  to  painful  effort.  Love  is  capable  of  going  beyond 
faith  in  inspiring  and  sustaining  painful  efforts.  This  labour 
springs  from  love,  or  is  characterized  by  love — the  phrase  ad- 
mitting of  either  interpretation. 

patience  :  more  than  uncomplaining  submission.  There  is 
an  active  sense  in  the  Greek  word  which  points  to  a  sustaining  by 
effort,  a  bearing  up. 

hope.     The  patience  is  based  on  hope,  or  is  characterized  by 


I  THESSALONIANS   1.  4,  5  161 

God  and  Father ;  knowing,  brethren  beloved  of  God,  4 
your  election,  how  that  our  gospel  came  not  unto  you  in  5 
word  only,  but  also  in  power,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost, 

hope,  a  similar  alternative  being  open  to  us  in  interpreting  each 
of  these  three  phrases. 

in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  This  must  not  be  connected  with 
the  whole  phrase  'patience  of  hope,'  nor  with  all  three  phrases, 
but  only  with  the  word  'hope.'  It  is  not  the  work  or  labour  or 
patience,  but  the  hope  that  is  in  Christ.  In  Col.  i.  27  Paul  writes 
of  Christ  as  our  hope.  The  meaning  is  that  the  Christian 
expectation  is  based  on  Christ  and  what  he  will  do.  It  may- 
mean  the  hope  of  Christ's  return,  that  subject  occupying  attention 
later  in  the  Epistle  (iv.  13-18).  But  the  word  '  hope '  occurs  three 
times  again  in  this  Epistle,  at  iv.  13,  where  it  refers  to  the  condition 
of  the  blessed  dead,  and  at  v.  8,  where  its  object  is  '  salvation/  or 
final  deliverance  from  all  evil.  It  is  best  therefore  to  take  it  here 
in  a  wide,  general  sense.  The  gospel  instils  hopefulness  with 
regard  to  the  future  generally ;  this  rests  in  Christ  and  what  he 
will  accomplish ;  meanwhile  it  gives  the  power  to  bear  up  amid 
present  adverse  circumstances. 

4.  beloved  of  God:  the  reading  of  R.V.,  preferable  to  the 
arrangement  in  A.  V.,  which  is  'brethren  beloved,'  the  following 
phrase  then  being  'your  election  of  God.'  That  arrangement 
disjoints  the  phrases. 

your  election :  the  selection  of  these  people  out  of  the  great 
population  of  the  city  of  Thessalonica. 

5.  how  that:  not  'for'  as  in  A.  V.  The  words  that  follow 
expand  the  notion  of  the  selection  of  these  people,  shewing  for 
what  end  they  were  chosen. 

our  gospel:  the  gospel  which  Paul,  Silvanus,  and  Timothy 
had  preached.  The  word  '  gospel '  is  never  used  in  the  Bible  for 
a  book,  as  we  use  it  for  the  works  of  the  four  Evangelists,  but 
always  for  the  preachers'  message,  the  good  news  they  were 
proclaiming. 

in  power  :  manifested  in  the  effects  of  the  mission.  This  was 
at  Thessalonica.  Now  Paul  is  in  Corinth.  Writing  subsequently 
to  the  Christians  of  the  latter  city  he  refers  to  the  '  power'  of  his 
preaching  witnessed  there  also,  describing  '  the  word  of  the  cross' 
as  'the  power  of  God '  (1  Cor.  i.  18). 

in  the  Holy  Ghost :  the  coming  of  the  Spirit  of  God  on  the 
converts  as  spiritual  gifts  conferred  by  the  apostles.  This  may  be 
illustrated  by  an  incident  at  Ephesus,  where  Paul,  finding  twelve 
converts  who  had  not  heard  of  this  gift,  laid  his  hands  on  them, 
with  the  consequence  that  '  the  Holy  Ghost  came  on  them  ;  and 
they  spake  with  tongues  and  prophesied '  (Acts  xix.  6).     Probably 

<9>  M 


162  I  THESSALONIANS   1.  6 

and  in  much  assurance ;  even  as  ye  know  what  manner 

of  men  we  shewed  ourselves  toward  you  for  your  sake. 

6  And  ye  became  imitators  of  us,  and  of  the  Lord,  having 

similar  signs  which  expressed  the  extraordinary  enthusiasm  of  the 
new  movement  were  witnessed  at  Thessalonica.  Still  the  deeper, 
more  permanent,  and  more  valuable  effects  of  the  working  of 
the  Divine  Spirit  were  also  seen  there,  as  this  Epistle  clearly 
shews. 

assurance :  rather,  '  fullness.'  The  word  admits  of  both 
senses  ;  but  as  here  it  follows  references  to  the  power  of  the 
preaching  and  the  accompanying  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
it  is  not  so  likely  that  we  should  have  the  thought  of  the  Apostle's 
own  confident  mood  as  the  third  idea  brought  before  us;  it  is 
much  more  probable  that  the  abundant  working  of  the  gospel 
among  the  Thessalonians  should  be  the  idea  that  crowns  the 
other  two.  Besides,  the  preposition  '  in  '  is  not  repeated  the  third 
time.  We  have  (i)  'in  power,'  and  (2)  'in  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  fullness' — one  common,  complex  idea.  There  was  a  wealth 
of  grace  and  good  effects  in  association  with  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

even  as  ye  know,  &c.  Paul  appeals  to  his  readers'  experience. 
They  had  seen  the  missionaries  who  had  preached  in  the  effective 
way  just  described  to  be  themselves  living  witnesses  of  the  power 
of  the  gospel  they  proclaimed. 

we  shewed  ourselves:  lit.  'we  became,'  not  merely  'we 
were,'  as  in  A.  V.  The  expression  occurs  several  times  in  the 
Epistle,  and  is  generally  equivalent  to  '  we  proved  to  be '  this  or 
that.  Still  it  might  be  read  more  literally  here.  In  point  of  fact 
the  missionaries  adapted  themselves  to  the  requirements  of  their 
converts,  toiling  for  their  daily  bread  (see  ii.  9),  labouring  in 
teaching,  denying  themselves  innocent  delights,  almost  incurring 
martyrdom,  as  the  history  in  Acts  shews.  All  this  they  became  for 
the  sake  of  the  Thessalonian  Christians;  and  that  the  people 
themselves  knew  right  well.  This  was  the  secret  of  their 
influence.  We  see  the  same  thing  repeated  in  the  story  of 
Robert  and  Mary  Moffat,  where  the  Africans  are  impressed 
by  their  self-denying  kindness  in  coming  out  from  England 
and  living  among  the  native  people  solely  for  the  good  of  these 
people. 

6.  ye   became:    corresponding    to    the    'we   became'   of  the 
previous  verse. 

imitators :  better  than  '  followers/  as  in  A.  V.  The  Greek 
word  is  that  from  which  our  term  'mimic'  is  derived,  but  it  does 
not  convey  the  belittling  associations  of  the  English  derivative. 
It  points  to  the  grave  imitation  of  the  master  by  the  pupil. 


I  THESSALONIANS   1.  7,8  163 

received  the  word  in  much  affliction,  with  joy  of  the 
Holy  Ghost ;  so  that  ye  became  an  ensample  to  all  that  7 
believe  in  Macedonia  and  in  Achaia.     For   from   you  8 
hath  sounded  forth  the  word  of  the  Lord,  not  only  in 
Macedonia  and  Achaia,  but  in  every  place  your  faith  to 


and  of  the  Lord.  The  Thessalonians  were  led  on  to  the 
imitalio  Christi  by  first  of  all  copying  the  conduct  of  those  of 
Christ's  servants  who  were  living  among  them. 

affliction :  the  persecution  described  in  Acts  xvii.  5-9,  where 
we  read  how  the  Jews  of  Thessalonica  collected  •  vile  fellows  of 
the  rabble'  with  whom  they  assaulted  the  house  of  Jason,  Paul's 
host,  and  dragged  him  before  the  Roman  tribunal. 

joy  of  the  Holy  Ghost :  the  joy  that  springs  from  the 
reception  of  the  Spirit  of  God.  Elsewhere  in  specifying  l  the 
fruit  of  the  Spirit'  Paul  gives  'joy'  as  the  second  item  in  his 
list  of  products — the  first  being  'love'  (Gal.  v.  22).  Prof. 
Harnack  has  pointed  out  that  the  two  great  characteristics  of 
the  early  Christians  were  brotherly  love  and  an  enthusiasm  of 
gladness. 

*7.  an  ensample.  As  the  Thessalonians  had  imitated  the  mis- 
sionaries, so  they  in  turn  became  examples  to  neighbouring  Chris- 
tians, and  particularly  in  this,  that  they  cheerfully  surmounted 
persecution.  The  idea  is  that  gladness  of  soul  shining  out  of  the 
troubles  of  life  furnishes  an  attractive  example  to  others. 

Macedonia :  the  Roman  province  of  northern  Greece. 

Achaia:  the  Roman  province  of  southern  Greece.  Paul 
always  uses  these  large  names  of  the  political  divisions  of  the 
Roman  Empire  when  referring  to  the  districts  they  include. 
Thus  he  writes  of  '  Asia,'  '  Cilicia,'  &c. 

8.  sounded  forth.  This  can  scarcely  point  to  missionary 
enterprises  undertaken  by  the  Thessalonians.  It  seems  to  mean 
that  the  fame  of  their  glad  endurance  of  persecution  was  itself 
a  powerful  declaration  of  the  gospel.  Their  joy  was  like  a  merry 
peal  of  bells  ringing  out  the  good  news  of  the  Christian  message, 
and  reverberating  far  and  wide. 

the  word  of  the  Lord:  either  (1)  'the  Lord's  word,'  his 
teaching  and  commands,  or  (2)  'the  word  about  the  Lord,'  the 
gospel  story  of  his  grace.  The  very  frequent  use  of  the  expression 
in  the  O.  T.,  and  always  with  the  first  of  these  meanings,  points  to 
that  meaning  here  (cf.  Isa.  i.  10).  Thus  the  idea  is  the  Divine 
word,  the  word  from  God  and  Christ. 

every  place :  besides  Macedonia  and  Achaia  ;  therefore  the 
Eastern  Churches,  see  Introduction,  p.  22. 
M   2 


i64  I  THESSALONIANS  1.  9,  10 

God-ward  is  gone  forth  ;  so  that  we  need  not  to  speak 
9  anything.     For  they   themselves   report  concerning   us 

what  manner  of  entering  in  we  had  unto  you ;  and  how 

ye  turned  unto  God  from  idols,  to  serve  a  living  and 
10  true  God,  and  to  wait  for  his  Son  from  heaven,  whom  he 

raised  from  the  dead,  even  Jesus,  which  delivereth  us 

from  the  wrath  to  come. 

we  need  not  to  speak  anything :  i.  e.  in  commendation  of 
the  Thessalonians,  their  character  being  so  well  known. 

9.  they  themselves.  These  people  having  heard  the  fame  of 
the  Thessalonians  are  sending  to  congratulate  the  Apostle  on  the 
wonderful  reception  his  message  has  met  with  in  the  Macedonian 
city. 

idols.  Those  marble  statues  that  we  now  admire  as  works 
of  art  were  to  Paul  mere  idols,  and  rightly  so,  since  in  his  day 
incense  was  burnt  before  them  as  though  the  gods  lived  in  them. 

living":  in  contrast  to  the  lifeless  stone. 

true :  in  contrast  to  the  false,  the  unreal  divinity  of  the 
images.  The  first  and  most  fundamental  change  in  the  religion  of 
these  Greeks  was  their  abandonment  of  idolatry  and  their  com- 
mencement of  the  spiritual  worship  of  God. 

10.  This  verse  indicates  the  second  great  change  in  the 
Thessalonians,  viz.  their  reception  of  the  Christ-thought. 

to  wait  for  his  Son :  i.  e.  for  the  return  of  Christ.  It  is 
characteristic  of  this  Epistle  to  direct  attention  forward  to  our 
Lord's  second  Advent,  rather  than  back  to  his  earthly  life,  his 
death  and  resurrection,  mention  of  which  only  comes  here  in 
a  subsidiary  clause,  the  main  thought  being  that  of  the  attitude  of 
expectancy.  These  two  things  characterize  the  new  faith  of  the 
Thessalonians — (i)  abandonment  of  idolatry  for  the  worship  of 
the  living,  true  God,  and  (2)  expectation  of  the  return  of  the  risen 
Christ. 

whom  he  raised.  This  is  Paul's  usual  manner  of  describing 
our  Lord's  resurrection.  It  is  not  that  Christ  rises  ;  but  that  God 
raises  him  up  (e.  g.  Rom.  iv.  24,  vi.  4,  9  ;  1  Cor.  vi.  14,  xv.  12,  &c). 
The  fact  is  mentioned  here  as  a  ground  for  the  expectation  of 
our  Lord's  return. 

even  Jesus :  our  Lord's  personal  name. 

delivereth.  The  verb  is  in  the  present.  The  process  is  now 
going  on. 

us.  In  humility,  and  truth  also,  the  Apostle  associates 
himself  with  these  converts  from  heathenism.  He  too  as  well  as 
they  was  in  danger  of  the  wrath,  and  was  being  saved  from  it  by 
Christ. 


I  THESSALONIANS  2.  i,  2  165 

For  yourselves,  brethren,  know  our  entering  in  unto  2 
you,  that  it  hath  not  been  found  vain  :  but  having  suffered  2 
before,  and  been  shamefully  entreated,  as  ye  know,  at 
Philippi,  we  waxed  bold  in  our  God  to  speak  unto  you 


the  wrath  to  come  :  lit.  '  the  coming  wrath ' ;  the  participle 
is  in  the  present,  not  to  indicate  that  the  wrath  is  on  the  way,  but 
to  shew  the  certainty  of  its  future  advent,  whenever  that  may  be. 
Paul  is  referring  to  the  anger  of  God  that  will  descend  in  vengeance 
on  the  guilty  race. 

ii.  1 -1 2.  A  description  of  the  Apostles  conduct  of  his  mission  at 
Thcssalonica.  The  Thessalonians  know  how  Paul  and  his  com- 
panions came  to  them  after  having  been  shamefully  treated  at 
Philippi,  preaching  boldly  the  pure,  true  message  that  was 
entrusted  to  them.  They  did  not  flatter,  they  did  not  seek  their 
own  profit,  but  they  cherished  their  converts,  giving  them  their  very 
selves.  Not  to  be  a  burden  to  the  Thessalonians,  they  supported 
themselves  by  their  own  labour,  and  lived  a  good  and  holy  life 
among  them,  treating  them  as  a  father  treats  his  children,  and  so 
encouraging  them  in  the  Christian  life. 

1.  our  entering  in:  the  coming  of  the  missionaries  to  the  city 
of  Thessalonica. 

hath  not  been  found:  lit.  'did  not  become' — i.e.  did  not 
prove  itself  to  be. 

vain :  lit.  '  empty.'  They  did  not  come  as  helpless  fugitives, 
as  pauper  immigrants,  empty-handed  and  useless.  They  came  in 
fullness  of  power  and  with  gifts  for  the  people  they  visited. 

2.  shamefully  entreated  ...  at  Philippi.  Luke  gives  a  full 
account  of  this  shameful  treatment  in  Acts  xvi.  19-23.  In  this 
case  it  was  not  Jewish  jealousy  that  raised  opposition  to  Paul,  but 
a  much  more  rare  source  of  antagonism,  an  alarmed  commercial 
self-interest  in  heathen  circles.  Some  soothsayers  were  enraged 
because  Paul  had  cured  a  supposed  Pythoness,  a  girl  said  to  be 
possessed  by  a  divining  demon,  out  of  whose  performances  they 
were  making  their  living.  These  men  got  Paul  and  Silas  arrested 
and  dragged  before  the  praetors  in  the  forum  as  disturbers  of  the 
peace  and  innovators  in  opposition  to  Roman  customs.  The  mob 
were  excited  against  the  apostles,  and  the  magistrates  had  them 
stripped  and  scourged  with  the  lictor's  rods  and  then  flung  into 
prison,  conduct  for  which  Paul  subsequently  exacted  an  apology 
on  the  ground  of  his  Roman  citizenship. 

Philippi :  a  city  in  the  east  of  Macedonia  situated  on  a  steep 
hill  at  the  edge  of  a  great  plain.  It  was  named  after  Philip  of 
Macedon,  its  founder,  but  in  Paul's  time  it  was  a  Roman  colony. 


166  I  THESSALONIANS  2.  3,  4 

3  the  gospel  of  God  in  much  conflict.     For  our  exhortation 

4  is  not  of  error,  nor  of  uncleanness,  nor  in  guile :  but 
even  as  we  have  been  approved  of  God  to  be  intrusted 
with  the  gospel,  so  we  speak  j  not  as  pleasing  men,  but 

Our  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  was  addressed  to  the  church  in 
this  city. 

waxed  bold.  The  Apostle's  courage  grew  all  the  stronger  in 
face  of  opposition.  The  word,  taken  literally,  means  '  became  bold 
in  speech.' 

in  our  God:  by  the  help  of  God,  the  source  of  the  courage. 

the  gospel  ©f  God:  God's  gospel,  meaning  the  gracious 
message  which  He  sends,  not  the  glad-tidings  about  God.  The 
subject  of  the  gospel  is  Christ.  The  expression  is  a  favourite  one 
with  the  Apostle,  and  his  use  of  it  is  clear  in  Rom.  i.  1-3,  where 
after  referring  to  'the  gospel  of  God,'  he  adds  that  it  is  '  concerning 
His  Son.' 

much,  conflict:  the  opposition  at  Thessalonica  already  referred 
to.     See  note  on  i.  6. 

3.  exhortation:  the  appeal  that  follows  the  'preaching'  or 
proclamation  of  the  gospel,  and  'teaching'  or  exposition  of  its 
truths. 

of  error:  meaning  'out  of  error,'  'having  its  source  in  error.' 
Compare  the  phrase  in  the  Creed,  '  light  of  light,'  i.  e.  derived  light 
coming  from  original  light.  The  apostolic  exhortation  did  not 
spring  from  a  delusion. 

uncleanness:  'impure  motives,'  i.e.  low,  self-interested 
aims,  as  the  words  that  follow  shew  the  Apostle's  meaning  to 
be.  He  was  not  deceiving  and  flattering,  with  secret  motives 
of  covetousness.  The  Greeks  were  familiar  with  such  conduct 
on  the  part  of  sophists  and  rhetoricians,  travelling  lecturers, 
clever  to  gather  audiences  with  taking  speech,  but  caring  only  for 
the  fees  they  could  extract. 

nor  in  gruile.  All  was  open  and  above  board  in  the  apostolic 
exhortation.  There  were  no  sophistical  attempts  to  entrap  the 
unwary. 

4.  approved  of  God  :  as  regards  their  characters. 
intrusted  with  the  gospel :  with  reference  to  their  mission. 

God  had  considered  Paul  and  his  companions  fit  and  proper 
persons  to  have  the  responsibility  of  expounding  His  message  of 
grace  intrusted  to  them.  In  the  pastoral  epistles  the  Apostle  says 
that  the  gospel  'was  committed  to  my  trust'  (1  Tim.  i.  n),  and 
calls  it  '  the  message  wherewith  I  was  intrusted  according  to  the 
commandment  of  God  our  Saviour'  (Titus  i.  3). 

so  we  speak :  i.  e.  in  accordance  with  their  character,   the 


I  THESSALONIANS  2.  5-7  167 

God  which  proveth  our  hearts.     For  neither  at  any  time  5 
were  we  found  using  words  of  flattery,  as  ye  know,  nor 
a  cloke  of  covetousness,  God  is  witness ;   nor  seeking  6 
glory  of  men,  neither  from  you,  nor  from  others,   when 
we  might  have  been  burdensome,  as  apostles  of  Christ. 
But  we  were  gentle  in  the  midst  of  you,  as  when  a  nurse  7 

character  of  which  God  so  much  approved  that  He  intrusted  them 
with  the  gospel. 

provetii:  tries  and  tests,  and  so  discovers  the  true  inner 
character. 

5.  a  cloke  of  covetousness:  some  trick  to  disguise  covetousness, 
flattering  the  people  with  pleasant  phrases  only  to  get  money  out 
of  them. 

God  is  witness.  He  only  can  see  if  there  is  any  hidden 
selfish  motive  or  deceitful  aim.  Therefore  here  the  Apostle 
appeals  to  God.  When  dealing  with  external  conduct,  visible 
to  all,  he  appeals  to  his  readers. 

6.  been  burdensome.  The  alternatives  are  'used  authority' 
(margin  of  A.V.)  and  '  claimed  honour'  (margin  of  R.  V.).  If  we 
accept  either  of  these  the  idea  is  that  the  apostles  did  not  assert 
their  dignity  as  they  might  have  done.  The  previous  statement, 
that  they  did  not  seek  '  glory  of  men,'  and  the  following  words  in 
which  Paul  writes  of  their  gentleness  favour  this  view.  But 
a  little  further  on  he  uses  a  form  of  the  same  Greek  word  here 
rendered  '  burdensome,'  saying,  '  that  we  might  not  burden  you/ 
when  reminding  the  Thessalonians  how  he  had  worked  for  his 
living  rather  than  take  anything  from  them.  It  seems  reasonable 
therefore  to  conclude  that  the  meaning  is  the  same  here. 

7.  we  were :  or  '  proved  to  be,'  the  word  so  frequently  met 
with  before  in  this  sense. 

gentle.  Curiously  enough  some  of  the  oldest  MSS. — including 
the  two  most  ancient  of  all,  the  Vatican  and  the  Sinaiiic — have 
'  babes '  instead  of  this  word  :  '  But  we  were  babes  in  the  midst  of 
you.'  But  this  is  quite  inappropriate  to  the  immediate  context, 
where  Paul  compares  himself  to  a  nurse  cherishing  her  children. 
The  change  of  the  word  is  easily  accounted  for.  In  the  Greek 
it  only  involves  the  addition  of  one  letter.  '  Gentle  '  =  epioi; 
'babes'  =  ncpioi.  Moreover  in  the  Greek  text  the  previous  word 
ends  with  this  letter  n.  In  the  old  MSS.  there  is  no  division 
between  the  words.  If  that  final  n  got  detached  from  its  own 
word  and  joined  to  the  following  word  in  reading,  the  result 
would  give  us  'babes'  instead  of  'gentle';  or  the  carelessness 
of  a  scribe  in  writing  the  n  twice  would  produce  the  text  as  it 


i68  I  THESSALONIANS  2.  8-10 

8  cherisheth  her  own  children :  even  so,  being  affection- 
ately desirous  of  you,  we  were  well  pleased  to  impart 
unto  you,  not  the  gospel  of  God  only,  but  also  our 
own  souls,  because  ye  were  become   very   dear  to  us. 

9  For  ye  remember,  brethren,  our  labour  and  travail : 
working  night  and  day,  that  we  might  not  burden  any  of 

10  you,  we  preached  unto  you  the  gospel  of  God.     Ye  are 
witnesses,  and  God  a/so,  how  holily  and  righteously  and 


stands  in  the  MSS.  referred  to.  This  is  an  instance  of  how  the 
best  MSS.  may  sometimes  be  demonstrably  wrong,  and  of  how 
therefore  we  must  sometimes  prefer  the  readings  of  inferior 
MSS. 

a  nurse:  a  nursing  mother,  not  a  slave  or  a  hired  nurse, 
because  she  is  described  as  cherishing  '  her  own  children.' 

8.  affectionately  desirous :  a  single  word  in  the  Greek, 
indicating  the  keen  interest  the  Apostle  felt  in  the  Thessalonians. 

our  own  souls :  our  very  selves,  and  even  our  lives. 

9.  labour  :  toil  with  the  idea  of  its  weariness. 

travail :  work  with  the  idea  of  its  effort  and  strenuousness. 

working'  night  and  day.  The  Apostle  supported  himself  at 
Thessalonica  by  his  own  labour.  In  writing  to  the  Corinthians 
Paul  reminds  them  how  he  had  worked  among  them  also,  as  he 
says,  with  his  'own  hands'  (i  Cor.  iv.  la).  We  learn  from  Acts 
xviii.  2  that  his  trade  was  tent-making,  an  employment  in  which 
Priscilla  and  Aquila  joined  the  Apostle  when  at  Corinth.  This 
work  by  which  he  earned  his  daily  bread,  added  to  his  missionary 
labours,  necessarily  involved  long  hours.  After  preaching  the 
gospel  and  discussing  questions  arising  from  it  with  all  possible 
inquirers  during  the  day-time,  instead  of  taking  his  much  needed 
rest  he  would  have  to  sit  late  into  the  night,  cutting  the  coarse 
goat's-hair  cloth  and  sewing  it  to  the  requisite  shape  for  the 
shelters  of  the  Greek  shepherds  out  on  the  hills. 

that  we  might  not  burden  any  of  you:  the  reason  for 
undertaking  this  manual  work.  Note  Paul's  delicacy  of  feeling  in 
this  matter. 

10.  holily.  This  is  not  a  form  of  the  word  commonly  rendered 
'holiness,'  which  really  means  being  dedicated  and  set  apart  for 
God  ;  but  a  term  pointing  to  purity  and  elevation  of  character, 
and  therefore  meaning  more  nearly  the  same  as  our  word 
'holiness.' 

righteously :  with  integrity  and  uprightness  of  conduct, 
morally  right. 


I  THESSALONIANS  2.  11,12  169 

unblameably  we   behaved   ourselves   toward    you    that 
believe  :  as  ye  know  how  we  dealt  with  each  one  of  you,  1 1 
as  a  father  with  his  own  children,  exhorting  you,  and 
encouraging  you,    and   testifying,    to   the    end   that   ye  12 
should  walk  worthily  of  God,  who  calleth  you  into  his 
own  kingdom  and  glory. 


unblameably.  Nobody  could  sustain  any  accusation  against 
the  missionaries. 

11.  each  one  of  you.     There  was  personal  care  and  attention 
given  to  every  individual  convert  separately. 

as  a  father.  Previously  Paul  had  spoken  of  his  being  like 
a  nursing  mother  (verse  7).  Thus  he  heaps  up  the  images  of  most 
affectionate  solicitude. 

exhorting1 :  to  rouse  the  sense  of  duty. 

encouraging:  to  cheer  with  the  prospect  of  a  glad  per- 
formance of  it. 

testifying:  solemnly  charging.  The  word  is  used  in  this 
sense  in  Eph.  iv.  17,  'This  I  say  therefore,  and  testify  in  the  Lord, 
that  ye  no  longer  walk  as  the  Gentiles,'  &c. 

12.  walk:    a  Hebraism   pointing   to   the   common   course   of 
daily  life. 

calleth:  according  to  the  best  MSS.,  not  'called'  as  in  A.  V. 
The  call  is  continuous,  (i)  This  may  mean  that  one  and  another 
are  called  successively,  the  gospel  invitation  being  continually 
repeated  to  bring  in  new  converts.  (2)  Or  it  may  mean  that  the 
whole  church  is  being  continually  called  to  an  inheritance  not  yet 
enjoyed.  Perhaps  the  reference  to  the  '  glory '  which  is  a  privilege 
of  the  future  rather  favours  this  second  view.  But  it  is  not  at  all 
in  the  line  of  Paul's  usual  teaching.  The  Apostle  always  regards 
the  call  of  each  individual  as  one  act  of  God.  Therefore  probably 
we  should  fall  back  on  the  first  meaning.  The  evangelistic  work 
in  Thessalonica  has  not  ceased  ;  although  the  Apostle  has  left 
the  city  God  is  still  calling  new  followers  of  Christ  into  His 
Church. 

his  own :  an  emphatic  pronoun.  This  is  the  high  privilege 
of  Christians,  not  to  be  treated  as  aliens,  but  to  be  made  citizens 
of  God's  own  kingdom.  Paul  is  a  Jew;  the  kingdom  of  God  was 
regarded  as  the  privilege  of  his  race.  The  Thessalonians  are 
Gentiles  ;  yet  they  are  being  called  into  it. 

kingdom :  the  most  familiar  word  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus  ; 
much  less  frequent  in  the  apostolic  writings.  The  idea  was 
Jewish  in  origin — the  Jews  looking  forward  to  the  coming  of  the 
kingdom  of  God.    The  Greek  world  was  not  familiar  with  the  idea, 


170  I  THESSALONIANS  2.  13 

13      And  for  this  cause  we  also  thank  God'without  ceasing, 
that,  when  ye  received  from  us  the  word  of  the  message, 

and  therefore  would  not  so  readily  apprehend  the  presentation  of 
the  gospel  in  this  form.  Still  occasionally  it  is  so  described  even 
for  Greeks,  for  the  idea  itself  is  true  and  important.  In  Christian 
teaching,  as  our  Lord  has  shewn,  it  represents  the  spiritual,  inward 
rule  of  God  in  the  hearts  of  His  people  with  all  the  benefits 
personal  and  in  the  social  system  that  result  from  that  rule. 
Here  the  union  of  the  idea  of  glory  with  it  shews  the  kingdom  to 
be  regarded  as  something  future,  not  yet  realized,  just  as  we  are 
taught  to  pray,  'Thy  kingdom  come/  with  a  view  to  its  future 
advent.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  Paul  had  made  the  preaching  of 
the  kingdom  prominent  at  Thessalonica,  since  there  the  Christians 
were  accused  of 'saying  that  there  is  another  king,  one  Jesus,' 
and  thus  '  acting  contrary  to  the  decrees  of  Caesar '  (Acts  xvii.  7). 
May  it  be  that  the  misunderstanding  here  made  apparent  induced 
the  Apostle  to  avoid  references  to  the  Jewish  conception  of 
Christianity  as  a  kingdom  in  his  subsequent  work  among  the 
Greek  cities  ?  Thus  we  can  account  for  the  rarity  of  the  occurrence 
of  the  term  in  the  Epistles  compared  with  the  Gospels. 

ii.  13-16.  Thanksgiving  for  the  way  in  which  the  Thessalonians 
had  received  the  apostolic  message.  Turning  from  the  description 
of  his  own  work  at  Thessalonica  the  Apostle  makes  mention  of 
the  good  reception  of  it  on  the  part  of  his  converts  in  that 
city.  This  is  a  matter  of  ceaseless  thankfulness  on  his  part.  The 
Thessalonians  received  the  gospel  as  the  word  of  God,  and  it 
continued  to  work  in  them  so  that  they  followed  the  example  of 
the  Judaean  Christians,  enduring  from  their  fellow  countrymen 
persecutions  like  those  the  Jewish  Christians  were  suffering  from 
Jews.  This  leads  the  Apostle  to  describe  the  guilt  of  those  Jews 
who  both  reject  Christ  for  themselves  and  refuse  the  gospel  to 
the  Gentiles. 

13.  for  this  cause.  For  what  cause?  The  Apostle  might  be 
referring  to  the  call  of  the  Thessalonians  into  God's  own  kingdom  ; 
but  as  the  mention  of  that  call  only  occurs  in  a  subordinate 
clause  it  is  more  likely  that  his  reference  is  to  the  whole  of  the 
previous  sentence.  That  is  to  say,  he  never  ceases  to  thank  God 
for  his  work  at  Thessalonica. 

we  also :  we  who  conferred  the  benefit,  as  well  as  you  who 
have  received  it. 

thank.      The    Greek   word    is    that    from   which    the   term 
'Eucharist'  is  derived. 

the  word  of  the  message :    lit.  '  the  word  of  hearing,'  i.  e. 
the  word  heard,  corresponding  to  '  the  preached  word.'     It  was 


I  THESSALONIANS  2.  14  171 

even  the  7vord  of  God,  ye  accepted  it  not  as  the  word 
of  men,  but,  as  it  is  in  truth,  the  word  of  God,  which 
also  worketh  in  you  that  believe.  For  ye,  brethren, 
became  imitators  of  the  churches  of  God  which  are 
in   Judaea  in   Christ   Jesus :    for   ye  also    suffered   the 

a  word  that  reached  the  Thessalonians,  a  message  they  themselves 
had  been  able  to  hear. 

the  word  of  God :  not  the  word  about  God,  but  the  word  that 
came  from  God,  God's  word,  as  is  proved  by  the  antithesis  of  f  the 
word  of  men,'  a  word  of  merely  human  origin.  The  Thessalonians 
had  perceived  that  what  the  Apostle  taught  had  its  origin  in  God. 
This  word  of  God  is  not  Scripture,  but  the  preaching  of  Paul  and 
his  companions. 

which  also  worketh.  This  Divine  word  has  power,  and 
makes  itself  felt  by  its  influence.  The  present  condition  of  the 
Thessalonians  which  has  been  reported  to  Paul  is  a  fruit  and 
sign  of  the  working  of  the  truth  in  them. 

you  that  believe.  The  Pauline  teaching  is  that  the  benefit 
of  the  gospel  is  conditional  on  the  faith  of  those  who  receive  it. 
Observe  the  present  tense  of  the  verb.  The  word  is  operative 
while  the  hearers  believe.  The  two  things  are  continuous.  If 
the  faith  ceased  the  influence  of  the  message  would  cease  also. 

14.  "became  imitators:  a  consequence  of  the  operation  of 
the  word  just  mentioned.  Previously  Paul  had  described  the 
Thessalonians  as  imitators  of  their  missionaries  (i.  6).  Now  he 
notes  that  they  are  imitators  of  the  primitive  churches  in  Judaea. 

churches  ...  in  Judaea.  It  has  been  said  that  there  was  no 
friendliness,  that  there  was  even  bitter  antagonism,  between  the 
Jewish  Christian  in  Palestine  and  Paul.  This  passage  does  not 
favour  that  notion.  Still  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  shews  that 
at  a  later  period  the  party  of  James  in  Jerusalem  was  opposed 
to  the  Apostle,  and  the  subsequent  history  of  the  old  Jewish 
communities  of  Christians  in  Palestine  tells  how  they  gradually 
got  out  of  sympathy  with  the  Greek  churches,  till  at  last  they 
were  regarded  as  heretics  under  the  title  of  '  Ebionites '  and 
'Nazarenes'  for  clinging  to  the  law  and  Jewish  notions  of 
Christianity  by  the  general  body  of  the  Christians  elsewhere. 
Then  the  Greek  churches  would  not  dream  of  imitating  the 
churches  of  Judaea.  But  at  the  early  date  of  this  Epistle  the 
schism  had  not  appeared,  and  the  primitive  churches  were 
naturally  regarded  as  patterns  whose  example  the  new,  raw 
converts  from  the  heathen  would  do  well  to  follow. 

suffered  the  same  thing's :  a  third  reference  to  the  persecu- 
tions endured  by  the  Thessalonians.     The  two  earlier  references 


172  I  THESSALONIANS  2.  15/16 

same  things    of  your  own    countrymen,    even    as    they 

15  did    of   the    Jews  ;    who    both   killed    the    Lord  Jesus 
and  the  prophets,  and   drave  out  us,    and   please  not 

16  God,   and  are   contrary  to  all  men  ;   forbidding  us    to 
speak  to  the  Gentiles  that  they  may  be  saved ;  to  fill  up 

are  at  i.  6  and  ii.  2.  Here,  as  in  the  earlier  of  the  two  passages 
just  cited,  where  the  Apostle  says  the  Thessalonians  were 
imitators  of  their  missionaries,  the  imitation  is  in  the  endurance 
of  persecution.  The  martyr  spirit  of  the  Judaean  Christians 
inspired  the  fidelity  of  the  Thessalonians  when  under  similar 
trials. 

yotir  own  countrymen.  The  persecution  had  been  carried 
on  by  the  rabble  of  the  city,  fellow  Macedonians,  though  it  had 
been  instigated  b}r  the  Jews  (see  Acts  xvii.  5). 

15.  killed  the  Lord  Jesus.  The  Apostle  lays  the  charge  of 
this  supreme  crime  against  the  Jews  generally.  Their  present 
attitude  shewed  their  consent  to  the  deed.  They  did  not  repudiate 
it ;  they  continued  to  act  in  the  spirit  of  it.  It  could  be  regarded 
as  their  national  action. 

the  prophets:  not  the  Christian  prophets — there  is  no 
sign  that  these  had  been  killed  by  the  Jews— but  the  Hebrew 
prophets  of  former  ages.  The  mention  of  them  here  resembles 
the  accusation  Jesus  brought  against  the  Jews  of  being  the 
murderers  of  the  servants  sent  to  his  vineyard  by  the  husband- 
man in  the  parable  (Mark  xii.  4,  5),  and  his  warning  that  on 
them  would  '  come  all  the  righteous  blood  shed  on  the  earth  from 
the  blood  of  Abel  the  righteous  unto  the  blood  of  Zachariah  son 
of  Barachiah,'  &c.  (Matt,  xxiii.  35). 

drave  out  us.  The  narrative  in  Acts  describes  the  expulsion  of 
Paul  and  his  companions  from  Thessalonica  (see  Acts  xvii.  5-10). 
Prof.  Ramsay  considers  it  to  imply  that  the  magistrates  settled  the 
case  that  was  brought  before  them  on  the  understanding  that 
the  missionaries,  as  disturbers  of  the  peace,  left  the  city  forthwith. 

contrary  to  all  men.  The  exclusiveness  of  the  Jews  led 
to  their  being  regarded  by  the  Gentiles  as  misanthropic.  This 
is  mentioned  by  Tacitus.  But  here  Paul  suggests  that  their 
antagonism  to  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  rendered  them  really 
enemies  of  the  human  race. 

16.  forbidding-  vlc  to  speak  to  the  Gentiles.  The  Jews,  while 
rejecting  the  gospel  for  themselves,  were  wildly  jealous  of  Paul's 
work  in  evangelizing  the  Gentiles.  In  this  jealousy  we  may  see 
the  ground  of  the  persecution  they  stirred  up. 

to  fill  up.  The  idea  is  an  allusion  to  the  common  Jewish 
image  of  the  cup.     When  this  is  filled  to  the  brim  it  will  overflow. 


I  THESSALONIANS  2.  17  173 

their  sins  alway :    but  the  wrath  is  come  upon  them  to 
the  uttermost. 

But  we,  brethren,  being  bereaved  of  you  for  a  short  17 


There  will  then  be  no  more  scope  for  sinning ;   the  judgement 
will  follow. 

alway :  i.  e.  the  Jews  always  act  in  this  way.  They  never 
cease  from  the  dreadful  work  of  filling  up  their  sins. 

the  wrath:  i.e.  God's  anger,  mentioned  thus  simply  with 
the  definite  article,  both  as  known  from  previous  warnings,  and 
also  because  it  is  so  dreadful  as  not  to  be  confounded  with  any 
other  being's  anger.     It  is  emphatically  the  wrath. 

is  come.  This  is  clearly  a  verb  in  the  past  tense,  for  the 
form  of  the  Greek  word  is  the  aorist.  It  cannot  mean  '  is  coming,' 
or  '  will  come.'  Accordingly  it  has  been  argued  from  the  phrase 
that  the  great  outpouring  of  Divine  wrath  in  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  had  already  taken  place.  This  would  place  the 
Epistle  later  than  a.  d.  70.  Baur  pointed  to  this  as  a  reason  for 
concluding  that  it  is  not  a  genuine  work  of  Paul's.  But  the 
context  does  not  bear  out  this  view,  since  there  we  read  of  the 
Jews  still  filling  up  their  cup  of  sin,  indicating  that  the  great 
outpouring  of  wrath  is  yet  to  come.  Besides,  the  whole  passage 
has  manifest  reference  to  a  time  but  shortly  after  the  evangeliz- 
ing of  the  Thessalonians.  Perhaps  the  Apostle  means  that  the 
preaching  of  judgement  which  goes  with  the  gospel  message 
is  the  coming  of  the  wrath.  In  this  preaching,  wrath  hangs  over 
the  heads  of  the  Jews  like  a  thundercloud  ready  to  burst  at 
any  moment,  sure  to  burst  directly  the  cup  of  sin  is  full. 

to  tlie  uttermost:  to  be  connected  with  the  verb — 'is  come 
to  the  uttermost,'  i.  e.  has  completely  come. 

Schmiedel  considers  verses  14  to  16  to  be  a  late  interpolation, 
both  because  of  the  harsh  language  used  concerning  the  Jews, 
and  also  because  of  the  complete  accomplishment  of  their  doom 
here  affirmed.  Thus  the  Epistle  may  be  still  regarded  as  genuine 
and  of  early  date,  although  a  late  date  is  given  to  this  passage. 
But  this  theory  is  not  needed  if  we  may  regard  the  'wrath'  as 
coming  in  the  message  of  judgement  delivered  the  by  Apostle. 
Possibly  the  troubles  caused  by  the  insurrection  of  Theudas 
(Acts  v.  36),  the  Jerusalem  famine  (xi.  27-30),  and  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jews  from  Rome  by  Claudius  (xviii.  2)  were  taken  by  Paul 
as  signs  of  Divine  wrath  against  the  Jews.  The  recent  Jewish 
persecution  of  the  Christians  at  Thessalonica  would  account  for 
Paul's  stern  thoughts  concerning  his  people. 

ii.  17-20.  The  Apostle  s  disappointment.  Temporally  separated 
from   the   Thessalonians — in    presence,    though    not   in    heart — 


i74  I  THESSALONIANS   2.  iS,  19 

season,  in  presence,  not  in  heart,  endeavoured  the  more 

18  exceedingly  to  see  your  face  with  great  desire  :  because 
we  would  fain  have  come  unto  you,  I  Paul  once  and 

19  again ;  and  Satan  hindered  us.     For  what  is  our  hope, 

the  Apostle  has  made  several  attempts  to  visit  them,  but  has 
been  hindered  by  Satan.  He  rejoices,  exults  in  them  before 
Christ  at  his  coming. 

bereaved.  A  very  expressive  compound  Greek  word  is  used 
here,  including  the  two  ideas  of  separation  and  bereavement, 
i.  e.  '  bereaved  by  separation.' 

a  short  season:  lit.  'a  season  of  an  hour.'  In  point  of  fact 
it  was  a  few  months.  There  was  the  time  of  the  Apostle's  visit 
to  Bercea,  his  journey  to  Athens  and  stay  there  during  which 
he  sent  Timothy  back  to  Thessalonica,  and  Timothy's  return 
to  the  Apostle,  then  at  Corinth. 

IS.  we  would  fain :  lit.  '  we  wished.' 

I  Paul.  Throughout  the  Epistle  Paul  associates  Silvanus  and 
Timothy  with  himself  by  writing  in  the  plural.  But  evidently 
that  is  an  act  of  courtesy  towards  the  two  companions.  It  is  the 
Apostle  who  writes,  and  his  personal  references  are  really  to 
his  own  feelings  and  experience.  At  this  point  he  breaks  from 
the  plural  form  of  language  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  his  in- 
dividual wish  to  visit  the  Thessalonians.  Indeed  the  plural  would 
be  out  of  place  here,  since  one  of  the  three,  Timothy,  had  been 
to  Thessalonica. 

once  and  again.  We  have  no  particulars  as  to  these  two 
occasions.  Possibly  one  was  when  the  Apostle  was  rejoined 
at  Athens  by  his  travelling  companions  who  would  bring  news 
from  Macedonia.  The  other  occasion  might  well  be  on  the  receipt 
of  the  news  that  Timothy  brought  to  Corinth.  Then  this  letter 
would  have  to  take  the  place  of  the  visit. 

Satan:  lit.  '  the  adversary.'  Accordingly  some  have  under- 
stood the  word  in  that  general  sense  here,  as  meaning  that  some- 
body or  something  that  Paul  called  his  adversary  hindered  him. 
But  throughout  the  N.  T.  it  clearly  stands  for  the  Prince  of  Evil, 
and  therefore  so  we  must  understand  it  here.  In  Job  i.  6  Satan 
appears  among  the  sons  of  God  as  the  Patriarch's  accuser.  But 
in  i  Chron.  xxi.  i  he  is  the  evil  spirit  who  tempts  David  to 
take  a  military  census  of  his  people.  In  Ps.  cix.  6  and  Zech.  iii.  i,  2 
he  appears  rather  as  an  adversary  than  as  a  tempter.  These  are 
the  only  O.  T.  books  in  which  Satan  is  mentioned.  In  the  N.  T. 
he  is  the  (1)  Evil  Spirit  as  the  great  tempter  and  promoter  of 
wickedness.  It  is  Satan  who  tempts  Jesus  in  the  wilderness 
(e.  g.  Mark  i.  13)  and  later  through  Peter  (Mark  viii.  33).  (2"  Satan 
is  also  referred  to  as  the  Prince  of  the  demons  who  is  exorcised, 


I  THESSALONIANS  2.  19  175 

or  joy,  or  crown  of  glorying  ?   Are  not  even  ye,  before 

together  with  his  instruments,  when  the  possessed  are  cured 
(Mark  iii.  23).  This  is  coming  near  to  some  physical  power, 
and  that  is  distinctly  referred  to  in  the  case  of  a  woman  bowed 
together  with  'a  spirit  of  infirmity,'  for  Jesus  speaks  of  her  as 
one  'whom  Satan  had  bound'  (Luke  xiii.  16).  Paul  seems  to 
have  this  way  of  regarding  disease  as  the  work  of  Satan  in  mind 
when  describing  the  '  thorn  in  the  flesh '  with  which  he  was 
afflicted  as  'a  messenger  of  Satan'  (2  Cor.  xii.  7),  and  perhaps 
also  when  recommending  as  an  act  of  discipline  on  an  offender, 
that  the  church  'deliver  such  a  one  unto  Satan'  (1  Cor.  v.  5). 
(3)  He  is  the  evil  world-power,  because  tempting  men  to  sin,  and 
thus  ruling  through  human  wickedness,  as  the  '  Prince  of  this 
world'  (John  xii.  31),  and  the  'Prince  of  the  power  of  the  air* 
(Eph.  ii.  2). 

hindered.  The  expression  is  vague,  and  we  are  left  to 
conjecture  as  to  the  way  in  which  Paul  conceived  Satan  to  have 
prevented  him  from  going  to  Thessalonica.  (1)  The  Apostle 
cannot  possibly  be  thinking  of  temptation  here,  as  though  some 
morally  evil  influence  on  himself  held  him  back.  (2)  He  may 
mean  illness  ;  but  if  that  were  the  case  probably  he  would  be 
more  explicit.  (3)  It  would  seem  then  that  the  third  form  of 
Satan's  influence  is  in  the  Apostle's  mind — Satan  mismanaging 
human  affairs.  This  might  take  the  form  of  some  adverse 
conjunction  of  circumstances,  some  hindrance  to  the  arrangements 
of  travel,  perhaps  the  watchful  opposition  of  the  Jews,  or  perhaps 
the  attitude  of  the  magistrates  at  Thessalonica  in  theirdetermination 
to  prevent  fresh  disturbances  of  the  peace. 

19.  crown  of  glory  in  g- :  better,  'garland  of  exulting.'  The 
word  rendered  '  crown '  does  not  stand  for  the  gold  and  jewelled 
decoration  worn  by  a  king ;  it  is  used  for  the  wreath  of  laurel, 
myrtle,  or  olive,  given  to  a  victor  or  honoured  person,  and  for 
the  garland  worn  by  a  guest  at  a  banquet.  The  '  crown  of  life ' 
(Rev.  ii.  10)  is  the  victor's  wreath.  But  here  the  idea  of  a  festive 
garland  is  more  appropriate.  The  Thessalonians  are  like  this 
sign  of  joy  to  the  Apostle,  for  he  can  exult  and  rejoice  in  them, 
so  noble  has  their  Christian  character  proved  to  be  when  under 
trial. 

"before  our  Lord  Jesxts.  The  Apostle  looks  forward  to 
the  happy  time  when  he  shall  see  his  Lord.  It  will  be  like 
a  banquet,  and  he  will  appear  there  with  his  festal  garland, 
of  which  the  Thessalonians  will  be  the  flowers.  To  put  it  in 
plain  prose  :  the  Apostle  will  be  proud  of  these  disciples,  full 
of  joy  and  exultation  about  them,  when  he  appears  before  Christ. 
It  is  they  of  all  his  converts  in  Asia  and  Europe  who  will  have 
this    first   place    of  honour.      Some   years   later   he    called    the 


176  I  THESSALONIANS  2.  20— 3.  1 

20  our  Lord  Jesus  at  his  coming  ?     For  ye  are  our  glory 

and  our  joy. 
3      Wherefore   when   we  could   no    longer    forbear,    we 

neighbouring  church  at  Philippi  his 'joy  and  garland'  (Phil.  iv.  i). 
These  Macedonian  Christians  seem  always  to  have  held  the  first 
place  in  the  Apostle's  heart.  When  writing  to  the  Corinthians 
he  cites  their  example  with  enthusiasm  (2  Cor.  viii.  5). 

his  coming* :  lit.  '  his  presence  '  —  the  Paronsia.  This 
thought  is  very  prominent  in  both  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians. 
It  bulked  largely  in  the  minds  of  the  early  Christians,  who  lived  in 
the  hope  of  the  return  of  Christ  to  establish  his  kingdom,  deliver 
his  people,  and  call  their  enemies  to  judgement.  Now  this  was 
very  like  the  Jewish  expectation  concerning  their  Messiah.  Thus 
it  would  appear  that  the  Christians  were  transferring  to  the  Second 
Advent  what  Jesushad  not  fulfilled  atthe  first, namely,  the  fulfilment 
of  Jewish  Messianic  hopes.  No  doubt  this  was  largely  so.  But 
there  were  differences.  The  Christian  expectation  of  the  Parousia 
was  not  merely  for  Jews,  but  for  Christians,  and  therefore  to  the 
exclusion  of  unbelieving  Israelites,  but  admitting  Gentile  believers. 
Then  though  probably  many  Christians  like  the  Jews  were  only 
too  ready  to  take  materialistic  views  of  the  future  and  regard  the 
good  time  coming  as  one  of  temporal  prosperity,  in  so  far  as 
the  Christians  had  received  the  teaching  and  spirit  of  Christ  they 
must  have  risen  to  his  more  spiritual  ideas.  It  is  to  be  observed 
that  the  expectation  is  less  prominent  in  the  later  period  of 
Paul's  life. 

20.  glory  :  a  different  word  from  that  translated  '  glorying  '  in 
verse  19  R.  V.,  which  would  have  been  better  rendered  -exulting,' 
to  maintain  the  distinction.  '  Glory '  is  the  right  word  here.  It 
does  not  point  to  the  Apostle's  own  feelings  of  pride  and  joy  in  the 
Thessalonians,  but  indicates  that  they  are  to  him  like  the  radiance 
of  the  sun,  like  the  light  that  gilds,  the  source  of  the  honour  to 
be  given  him  at  the  appearing  of  Christ.  This  accounts  for  the 
word  -for'  with  which  the  verse  opens.  Here  is  the  reason  for 
the  exultation,  viz.  that  the  Thessalonians  are  a  credit  to  the 
Apostle  of  highest  value. 

iii.  i-i'O.  Timothy's  mission  and  report.  Unable  to  bear  his 
separation  from  the  Thessalonians  without  intercourse  with 
them,  the  Apostle  sent  Timothy  with  the  object  of  encouraging 
them  to  the  faithful  endurance  of  persecution.  He  had  warned 
them  of  the  danger  when  with  them,  and  now  it  has  come.  He 
was  dreading  lest  they  should  succumb  to  the  temptation  and 
thus  his  labour  among  them  be  in  vain.  But  Timothy  on  his 
return  has  brought  tidings  of  the  fidelity  of  the  Thessalonians. 


I  THESSALONIANS  3.  2  177 

thought  it  good  to  be  left  behind  at  Athens  alone  ;  and  2 
sent   Timothy,    our  brother  and  God's  minister  in   the 

They  have  not  forgotten  their  evangelist.  This  news  greatly 
cheers  Paul.  Now  he  is  full  of  thankfulness,  but  he  does  not 
cease  to  pray  that  he  may  see  them  in  person. 

1.  Wherefore :  because  of  what  is  stated  in  the  previous 
paragraph,  i.  e.  that  the  Thessalonians  are  the  Apostle's  '  garland 
of  exulting.' 

we  :  plainly  meaning  the  Apostle  himself,  and  not  including 
Silvanus  and  Timothy.  This  verse  would  suggest  that  Paul  is 
using  the  editorial  '  we  '  throughout  the  Epistle.  But  that  would 
be  contrary  to  his  custom.  Moreover,  since  he  expressly  associates 
two  companions  with  himself  at  the  opening  of  the  Epistle  (i.  i), 
the  pronoun  'we'  in  the  next  sentence  would  naturally  include 
all  three.  And  yet  we  often  meet  with  expressions  of  such  intense 
personal  feeling  associated  with  this  plural  pronoun  that  we  must 
assign  them  to  the  Apostle  individually.  The  explanation  seems 
to  be  that  he  chose  the  plural  pronoun  in  order  to  associate  the 
two  companions  with  the  letter,  and  then  held  to  it  even  when  he 
was  writing  what  really  only  expressed  his  own  thoughts.  In 
this  verse  he  can  only  mean  himself,  as  he  speaks  of  being  left 
alone. 

forbear :  endure  separation  from  the  Thessalonians  without 
having  communication  with  them. 

Athens :  where  the  Apostle  had  stayed  for  a  time  when  on 
his  way  from  Macedonia  to  Corinth.  From  Acts  xvii.  14,  15  we 
learn  that  he  arrived  there  before  his  travelling  companions. 
From  this  Epistle  we  discover  that  he  sent  Timothy  to  Thessalonica 
from  Athens.  Acts  only  mentions  a  separation  before  coming  to 
Athens  ;  our  Epistle  only  refers  to  a  separation  after  arriving 
there.  It  has  been  said  that  there  is  a  contradiction  here. 
But  it  is  not  difficult  to  piece  the  two  accounts  together,  and 
understand  that  the  news  of  the  distressed  state  of  the  Thessa- 
lonians which  Timothy  brought  to  Paul  at  Athens  induced  the 
Apostle  to  send  him  back  with  a  message  of  encouragement  and 
to  obtain  later  information. 

2.  minister.  The  Greek  word  is  diakonos,  from  which  our  word 
*  deacon '  is  derived.  It  means  a  servant  viewed  in  regard  to  his 
work,  and  not  with  reference  to  his  relations  with  his  master.  It 
is  not  here  used  as  an  official  title.  The  minister  is  one  who 
renders  service.  The  addition,  'and  our  fellow-labourer,1  which 
was  in  the  A.  V.  disappears  from  the  text  in  the  R.  V.  because  it 
is  not  found  in  the  best  MSS.  There  is  a  reading  found  in  old 
Western  Greek  and  Latin  MSS.  which  gives  '  fellow-worker ' 
instead  of  '  minister'  ;  but  it  is  not  well  attested. 

in  the  gospel.   This  is  the  sphere  of  service.    Timothy  labours 
(9>  N 


178  I  THESSALONIANS  3.  3 

gospel  of  Christ,  to  establish  you,  and  to  comfort  you 
3  concerning  your  faith  ;  that  no  man  be  moved  by  these 

in  preaching  and  expounding  the  gospel.  He  is  not  'serving 
tables,'  like  the  '  Seven '  who  were  appointed  for  that  work  at 
Jerusalem,  although  we  might  think  the  word  '  deacon'  pointed  to 
such  service.  Plainly  it  is  used  here  in  a  general  sense,  which, 
however,  is  limited  by  the  qualifying  words  confining  the  ministry 
to  '  the  gospel.' 

to  establish  :  a  familiar  Pauline  metaphor  (e.  g.  1  Cor.  viii.  1, 
x.  23,  xiv.  17)  derived  from  the  O.  T.,  e.  g.  in  the  expressions, 
'he  established  a  testimony'  (Ps.  lxxviii.  5),  '  I  will  build  them, 
and  not  pull  them  down'  (Jer.  xxiv.  6),  'And  I  will  cause  the 
captivity  of  Judah  and  the  captivity  of  Israel  to  return,  and  will 
build  them,  as  at  the  first '  (xxxiii.  7).  But  while  in  the  older  usage 
the  idea  is  national  prosperity,  in  the  N.  T.  the  metaphor  refers  to 
individuals,  and  indicates  spiritual  progress  in  the  enlargement, 
advance,  and  strengthening  of  the  Christian  life. 

comfort.  The  word  has  four  meanings  : — (i^  '  exhort,'  as  in 
ii.  11  and  iv.  1 ;  (2)  '  beseech,1  as  in  Eph.  iv.  1  ;  (3)  '  encourage,'  as 
in  Eph.  vi.  22  where  the  English  is  that  '  he  may  comfort  your 
hearts';  since  there  is  no  idea  of  trouble  needing  consolation, 

1  encourage  '  would  be  a  better  word  here  ;  (4)  '  comfort,'  the 
usual  word  in  the  English  versions.  This  word  formerly  included 
the  ideas  of  strengthening  and  cheering,  apart  from  sorrow.  Thus 
in  the  treaty  between  England  and  Scotland  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  III  it  is  agreed  that  neither  of  the  kings  '  shall  maintayne, 
fauour,  ayde,  or  comfort  any  rebell  or  treytour.'  Wycliffe 
translates  Isa.  xli.  7,  '  And  he  coumfortide  hym  with  nailes, 
that  it  shulde  not  be  moued,'  where  the  A.V.  has  'fastened.' 
Frequently  where  our  English  Bible  has  'comfort'  it  would  be 
better  to  read  'encourage.'  In  the  present  case,  as  the  word 
is  connected  with  faith,  and  not  with  the  troubles  from  which  the 
Thessalonians  were  suffering,  it  would  be  desirable  to  render 
it  'encourage,'  especially  as  it  is  associated  with  the  word 
'  establish'  or  strengthen.     We  meet  with  the  same  association  in 

2  Thess.  ii.  17,  '  comfort  your  hearts  and  stablish  them,'  where 
again  '  encourage '  would  be  more  suitable  than  '  comfort,'  with 
our  modern  idea  of  consoling. 

concerning  yonr  faith.  In  these  early  times  the  word  'faith ' 
is  always  used  subjectively.  It  does  not  mean  the  creed  or  the 
religion,  i.  e.  the  object  of  faith  ;  it  means  the  internal  state  of 
trusting.  This  would  be  much  tried  by  the  persecutions  the 
Thessalonians  were  passing  through,  and  therefore  in  need  of 
strengthening  and  encouragement. 

3.  moved  :  agitated,  disturbed.     In  its  primary  sense  the  word 
is  used  of  a  dog  wagging  its  tail. 


I  THESSALONIANS   3.  4,  5  179 

afflictions ;    for  yourselves  know  that  hereunto  we   are 
appointed.     For  verily,  when  we  were  with  you,  we  told  4 
you  beforehand  that  we  are  to  suffer  affliction ;  even  as 
it  came  to  pass,  and  ye  know.     For  this  cause  I  also,  5 
when  I  could  no  longer  forbear,  sent  that  I  might  know 
your  faith,  lest  by  any  means  the  tempter  had  tempted 


these  afflictions :  the  persecutions  before  referred  to. 

yourselves  know:  an  allusion  to  warnings  the  Apostle  had 
given  the  Thessalonians  when  he  was  with  them,  as  the  next  verse 
explains. 

we.  Paul  here  associates  himself  with  his  correspondents. 
He  too  is  appointed  to  persecution.  It  is  the  common  lot  of 
the  Christians.  By  using  the  first  person  the  Apostle  reminds 
the  Thessalonians  that  they  were  not  being  treated  with  ex- 
ceptional severity. 

appointed:  by  God's  arrangement.  The  trouble  should  be 
borne  patiently,  seeing  that  it  is  really  no  accident  or  misadventure, 
but  a  part  of  God's  previous  plan  concerning  His  people.  Why 
it  is  so  the  Apostle  does  not  attempt  to  say  in  this  place,  although 
subsequently  he  describes  trouble  as  a  wholesome  discipline  (e.  g. 
see  2  Cor.  iv.  17).  For  the  present  it  is  enough  to  know  that 
it  is  God's  ordinance.  The  knowledge  of  that  fact  should 
encourage  those  who  trust  God  to  bear  it  patientfy. 

4.  beforehand  :  or  '  plainly/  as  in  the  margin  of  R.  V.  The 
same  word  occurs  at  2  Cor.  xiii.  2  and  at  Gal.  v.  21,  in  both  of 
which  cases  1 1  tell  you  plainly '  seems  more  suitable  than  '  I  tell 
you  beforehand,'  or  '  forewarn  you.'  But  here  the  meaning  in 
the  text  fits  best,  as  it  is  followed  by  the  statement '  even  as  it 
came  to  pass.' 

ye  know  :   now  from  experience. 

5.  Por  this  cause.  Paul  was  not  only  anxious  because  of  his 
separation  from  his  recent  converts,  he  was  especially  concerned 
for  them  on  account  of  the  persecutions  they  were  enduring. 

that  I  might  know  your  faith :  a  second  reason  for 
sending  Timothy  to  Macedonia.  The  first  was  to  strengthen  and 
encourage  the  Thessalonians.  The  Apostle  also  wants  a  report 
of  the  state  of  the  church.  Have  the  persecuted  people  stood  firm 
under  persecution  ?  or  has  their  faith  failed  ?  It  was  an  anxious 
time  for  Paul.  He  could  not  endure  the  suspense.  He  must 
know  the  worst. 

the  tempter :  Satan. 

tempted  :  by  fear  of  suffering  inducing  the  Thessalonians  to 
lose  faith. 

N    2 


180  I  THESSALONIANS  3.  6,  7 

6  you,  and  our  labour  should  be  in  vain.  But  when 
Timothy  came  even  now  unto  us  from  you,  and  brought 
us  glad  tidings  of  your  faith  and  love,  and  that  ye  have 
good  remembrance  of  us  always,  longing  to  see  us,  even 

7  as  we  also  to  see  you ;  for  this  cause,  brethren,  we  were 
comforted   over   you   in   all   our   distress  and  affliction 


our  labour,  &c.  :  the  work  of  the  Apostle  and  his  fellow 
missionaries  at  Thessalonica.  If  the  Thessalonians  had  yielded 
before  the  temptation  to  save  themselves  from  persecution  by 
renouncing  Christianity,  the  church  would  have  been  broken  up 
and  Paul's  work  in  the  city  brought  to  nothing. 

6.  when  Timothy  came:  Timothy's  return  from  this  journey 
with  its  double  purpose  of  encouraging  the  Thessalonians  and 
obtaining  information  for  the  Apostle. 

even  now.  This  shews  that  the  Epistle  was  written  immedi- 
ately after  Timothy  had  reached  Corinth  and  given  in  his  report. 

glad  tidings.  This  was  the  answer  to  Paul's  anxious  inquiry. 
Though  sorely  tried,  the  young  church  was  standing  firm.  Then 
the  Apostle's  labour  was  not  in  vain. 

faith :  the  one  subject  of  the  Apostle's  inquiry.  Faith  had 
not  failed. 

love :  love  to  one  another.  A  grateful  addition.  Faith  was 
bearing  fruit  in  brotherly  love. 

good  remembrance  :  a  kindly  recollection.  In  his  unselfish- 
ness the  Apostle  had  not  pressed  for  an  inquiry  on  this  point. 
But  Timothy  brings  the  additional  information  :  not  only  have  the 
Thessalonians  not  lost  faith  in  God  and  Christ  while  under 
persecution  ;  they  have  not  forgotten  the  founder  of  their  church, 
nor  turned  against  him  as  the  cause  of  this  trouble,  nor  even  grown 
cold  towards  him,  their  enthusiasm  damped  by  disappointment. 

always:  even  in  the  most  trying  times,  when  persecution 
tempts  them  to  regret  the  Apostle's  ever  having  come  among 
them. 

7.  for  this  cause :  because  of  the  good  news  brought  by 
Timothy,  especially  its  items  of  personal  interest  just  referred  to. 

distress:  lit.  'necessity,'  and  so  'hard  straits,'  'distress.' 
affliction.  While  the  Christians  were  being  persecuted  at 
Thessalonica,  Paul  in  Corinth  had  his  troubles  to  face.  According 
to  the  narrative  in  Acts  the  violent  opposition  of  the  Jews  at 
Corinth,  following  on  Paul's  preaching  Jesus  as  Christ,  compelled 
him  to  leave  the  synagogue  and  commence  work  with  the  Gentiles 
in  a  private  house.  That  the  situation  was  dangerous  is  indicated 
by  Paul's  vision  in  which  the  Lord  said  to  him,  '  Be  not  afraid, 


I  THESSALONIANS  3.  8-10  181 

through  your  faith  :  for  now  we  live,  if  ye  stand  fast  in   8 
the  Lord.     For  what  thanksgiving  can  we  render  again   9 
unto  God  for  you,  for  all   the  joy   wherewith   we  joy 
for  your  sakes  before  our  God  :  night  and  day  praying  10 

but  speak,  and  hold  not  thy  peace:  for  I  am  with  thee,'  &c.  (see 
Acts  xviii.  9-1 1).  The  disturbance  which  led  to  Paul  being 
brought  before  the  proconsul  Gallio  occurred  at  a  later  period — 
about  a  year  and  a  half  after  his  coming  to  the  city. 

your  faith.  It  was  the  faith  of  the  Thessalonians  about 
which  Paul  had  directed  Timothy  to  make  inquiry.  Now  it  is 
their  faith  that  cheers  the  Apostle.  The  brotherly  love  and  the 
kindly  remembrance  were  fruits  of  this  faith.  If  faith  had  failed, 
they  would  have  vanished.  Although  the  Apostle  does  not  here 
develop  his  doctrine  of  faith  as  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  even 
this  early  Epistle  reveals  his  consciousness  of  the  unique  importance 
of  the  fundamental  grace. 

8.  now  we  live.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  Apostle 
regards  his  depressed  state  before  Timothy  arrived  with  the  good 
news  from  Thessalonica  as  like  a  condition  of  death.  This  glad 
tidings  has  revived  him,  and  he  will  continue  to  live  if  only  the 
Thessalonians  will  continue  faithful. 

stand  fast:  a  change  of  phrase,  indicating  the  result  of  faith. 
Faith  produces  steadfastness. 

in.  The  use  of  this  preposition  in  the  N.  T.  is  very  varied 
and  extensive,  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  often  a  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  b'  a  preposition  which  means  'by'  as  well  as  'in.' 
and  partly  because  it  lends  itself  readily  to  certain  specifically 
Christian  ideas.  To  be  in  Christ  is  one  of  these  ideas.  The 
phrase  is  distinctly  a  Christian  idiom.  It  signifies  close  vital  union 
with  Christ,  like  the  branch  that  abides  '  in  the  vine.' 

the  Lord:  Jesus  Christ.  See  i.  i,  where  this  title  is  given 
together  with  the  personal  name. 

9.  for  you:  lit.  'concerning  you.'  It  is  not  giving  God  the 
thanks  which  was  due  from  the  Thessalonians  themselves,  but 
thanking  God  because  of  the  good  news  that  had  come  from 
Thessalonica. 

all  the  joy.  This  is  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  thanks- 
giving. Paul  does  not  know  how  to  thank  God  enough  for  giving 
him  this  great  gladness. 

for  your  sakes:  simply  'because  of  you'  as  the  occasion  of 
the  joy,  not,  on  your  behalf,  as  its  end  and  purpose. 

before  our  God.  Surely  not  to  indicate  '  the  pure  nature  of 
the  joy  .  .  .  such  as  could  bear  the  scrutiny  of  the  eye  of  God,'  as 
Bishop  Ellicott  says.     That  would  be  a  thought  too  remote  from 


182  I  THESSALONIANS  3.  n 

exceedingly  that  we  may  see  your  face,  and  may  perfect 
that  which  is  lacking  in  your  faith  ? 

Now  may  our  God  and  Father  himself,  and  our  Lord 


the  context.  The  Apostle  is  thinking  of  his  prayers  and  thanks- 
givings when  he  presents  himself  before  God.  These  are  made 
glad  by  the  news  from  Macedonia. 

10.  nigM  and  day.  This  cannot  merely  refer  to  morning 
and  evening  prayers,  at  the  two  set  hours  of  devotion.  The 
same  phrase  was  used  earlier  for  the  Apostle's  twofold  work  of 
preaching  the  gospel  and  supporting  himself  by  manual  labour — 
'working  night  and  day'  (ii.  c,\  where  continuity  was  indicated. 
The  same  idea  is  in  mind  here.  Paul  is  continually  praying 
this  prayer.  It  is  in  his  heart  in  the  quiet  night  and  in  the  busy 
day. 

perfect :  lit.  ' adjust,'  '  put  in  right  order ' ;  but  the  word  is 
used  in  a  secondary  sense  with  the  idea  of  completing.  It  is  not 
of  the  same  root  as  the  word  usually  rendered  'perfect,'  as,  for 
instance,  where  Jesus  says,  'Ye  therefore  shall  be  perfect,  as 
your  heavenly  Father  is  perfect'  (Matt.  v.  48).  It  has  nothing  to 
do  with  what  is  technically  called  'Christian  perfection.'  The 
real  meaning  of  the  word  '  perfect '  in  the  N.  T.  is  adult  or  mature. 
Here  the  idea  is  of  setting  to  rights  what  is  defective. 

your  faith.  The  faith  of  these  new  Macedonian  converts 
could  not  but  be  defective  as  to  its  contents,  however  strong  it 
might  have  been  in  its  sense  of  loyalty  and  confidence.  There 
is  no  evidence  that  the  Thessalonians  were  deficient  in  trust- 
fulness of  spirit  or  fidelity  to  Christ.  What  they  lacked  was 
a  clear  and  reassuring  view  of  truth,  as  the  subsequent  words 
of  the  Apostle  about  the  Second  Advent  shew.  By  giving  them 
further  enlightenment  the  Apostle  would  enlarge  and  strengthen 
the  contents  of  their  faith. 

iii.  11-13.  A  fervent  desire  for  the  progress  of  the  Thessalonians. 
The  Apostle  earnestly  prays  that  his  way  may  be  Divinely  directed 
so  that  he  may  come  to  his  friends.  He  also  prays  that  they  may 
abound  in  love,  in  order  that  they  may  be  well  established  in 
holiness  at  the  coming  of  Christ. 

our  G-od  and  Father :  a  favourite  expression  of  the  Apostle. 
It  also  occurs  in  i.  3,  and  again  in  iii.  13  ;  in  i.  1  Paul  writes  of 
'  God  the  Father.'  Then  in  the  Second  Epistle  he  has  '  God  our 
Father'  (2  Thess.  ii.  16),  and  'our  God'  (2  Thess.  i.  11,  12).  The 
full  phrase  brings  before  us  (1)  the  personal  relation  with  God  as 
'our  God,'  and  (2)  the  Divine  Fatherhood,  a  doctrine  especially 
revealed  and  expounded  in  the  teachings  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
fully  accepted  by  the  Apcstle  Paul. 


I  THESSALONIANS  3.  12  183 

Jesus,  direct  our  way  unto  you :  and  the  Lord  make  you  13 
to  increase  and  abound  in  love  one  toward  another,  and 

direct :  lit.  <  make  straight.'  The  verb  is  in  the  singular,  and 
yet  there  are  two  subjects  to  it,  '  our  God  and  Father '  and  '  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.'  This  indicates  that  to  the  Apostle  the  two 
were  one.  We  must  not  deduce  any  elaborate  Trinitarian  doctrine 
from  this  simple  expression,  as  Paul  is  not  here  formulating  a 
creed.  It  took  the  church  three  centuries  to  arrive  at  the  meta- 
physical refinement  of  the  Nicene  Creed.  But  Paul  could  not 
possibly  write  as  he  does  here  unless  he  viewed  our  Lord  in 
closest  union  with  God.  The  very  casualness  of  the  phrase 
where  another  subject  is  in  mind  shews  that  the  idea  in  it  was 
familiar  to  the  Apostle.  The  optative  form  of  the  verb  approaches 
the  language  of  prayer.  In  breathing  this  wish  the  Apostle  is 
virtually  praying  that  God  and  Christ  will  make  a  way  for  him  to 
visit  Thessalonica. 

our  way  unto  you.  The  desire  to  see  his  friends  is  on  the  mind 
of  the  Apostle,  and  therefore  repeatedly  coming  out  in  his  letter. 
This  sentence  must  be  set  off  against  the  earlier  statement  that 
Satan  was  hindering  the  journey  (ii.  18).  If  the  hindrance  is 
from  Satan  the  help  must  come  from  God  and  Christ.  Circum- 
stances are  too  strong  for  the  Apostle.  But  the  supreme  Providence 
can  frustrate  the  machinations  of  the  great  mischief-maker. 

12.  the  Lord.  It  may  be  questioned  whether  Paul  here  means 
God,  or  Christ.  Throughout  the  Epistle  he  writes  of  Jesus  as 
Lord,  sometimes  with  the  personal  name  added,  as  'our  Lord 
Jesus,'  or  'the  Lord  Jesus.'  Here,  as  in  verse  8,  it  stands  alone, 
and  therefore  it  might  mean  God  according  to  the  frequent  usage 
of  the  O.  T.  But  then  Paul  elsewhere  plainly  uses  the  title  by 
itself  for  Christ.  Thus  in  iii.  13  he  has  'the  coming  of  our  Lord 
Jesus,'  but  in  iv.  15,  'the  coming  of  the  Lord,'  manifestly  with 
reference  to  the  same  future  event.  In  the  latter  passage,  and  in 
the  verses  that  follow,  \  the  Lord '  is  evidently  Jesus  Christ.  It 
is  likely  that  the  intended  application  is  the  same  here.  But  the 
indefiniteness  of  the  expression  agrees  with  the  inference  deduced 
from  the  previous  verse,  viz.  that  Paul  is  assuming  the  Divinity  of 
Christ.  Otherwise  he  would  scarcely  use  a  term  so  familiar  to 
readers  of  the  O.  T.  as  a  name  of  God  without  guarding  it  against 
misapprehension.  Right  feeling,  a  shrinking  from  what  might 
seem  to  approach  blasphemy,  would  lead  him  to  avoid  this 
danger. 

increase:  pointing  to  the  process  of  growth. 

abound :  pointing  to  superlative  attainment. 

in  love :  or  '  in  your  love.'  It  already  exists  ;  the  prayer  is 
for  its  advance  to  overflowing  fullness.     Love  is  the  one  Christian 


i84  I  THESSALONIANS  3.  13 

13  toward  all  men,  even  as  we  also  do  toward  you  ;  to  the 
end  he  may  stablish  your  hearts  unblameable  in  holiness 

grace  which  the  Apostle  here  expressly  desires  to  see  flourishing. 
His  following  words  shew  that  he  regards  it  as  the  foundation  of 
holiness  and  of  a  ripe  Christian  character  generally.  This  was 
the  most  marked  characteristic  of  primitive  Christianity.  There 
had  come  into  the  world  a  new  religion  distinguished  from  the 
old  religions  especially  in  this,  that  its  followers  were  cultivating 
a  spirit  of  unselfish  kindness. 

one  toward  another :  the  peculiarly  Christian  grace  known 
in  the  N.  T.  as  '  love  of  the  brethren.' 

toward  all  men :  philanthropy.  By  what  looks  like  a  cruel 
irony  of  fate  the  Christians  were  hated  as  enemies  of  mankind. 
Thus,  referring  to  Nero's  persecution  of  the  Christians  after  the 
burning  of  Rome,  Tacitus  writes,  •  a  vast  multitude  was  convicted, 
not  so  much  of  arson,  as  cf  hatred  for  the  human  race.'  Never- 
theless history  gradually  dispelled  this  monstrous  illusion.  Charity 
was  a  visible  feature  of  the  new  religion.  Rich  men  would  give 
all  their  property  to  the  poor.  Orphanages  were  established, 
hospitals  supported,  prisoners  relieved,  slaves  treated  kindly,  and 
in  some  cases  emancipated,  by  the  Christians.  Seeing  that  they 
held  a  gospel  of  salvation,  their  missionary  zeal  in  spreading  it 
abroad  was  the  outcome  of  their  large  and  warm  philanthropy. 

as  we  also.  It  was  the  broader  philanthropy  that  led 
the  missionaries  to  preach  to  the  Greeks  at  Thessalonica  after 
they  had  been  repelled  by  the  Jews.  Then  after  the  church  was 
established  there  grew  up  between  the  converts  and  their  teachers 
the  new,  strong  emotion  of  brotherly  love.  This  Epistle  affords 
abundant  evidence  of  Paul's  affection  for  the  Thessalonians. 

13.  to  the  end.  This  twofold  love  is  not  the  end  of  all  per- 
fection. It  is  the  basis  on  which  the  complete  Christian  character 
is  to  be  built.  The  Apostle  therefore  proceeds  to  describe  the 
object  he  has  in  view  when  desiring  the  Thessalonians  to  abound 
in  love. 

stablish:  the  same  Greek  word  that  the  Apostle  had  used 
in  verse  2  when  expressing  his  desire  that  he  could  visit  the 
Thessalonians  in  order  to  '  establish  '  them.  Here  again  it  suggests 
the  notion  of  making  firm  and  strong.  But  while  in  the  former 
passage  Paul  wrote  as  though  he  could  bring  about  this  result,  now 
he  prays  that  God  may  do  it.  Unable  to  visit  the  Thessalonians  in 
person  as  yet,  he  prays  that  God  may  make  up  his  lack  of  service 
to  them.  We  must  not  suppose,  however,  that  he  would  think 
of  the  Divine  strengthening  as  a  mere  alternative  to  his  own,  to 
be  substituted  simply  because  he  is  not  able  to  go  to  Thessalonica  in 
person.    If  he  went,  it  would  be  as  God's  messenger  and  servant, 


I  THESSALONIANS  3.  13  185 

before  our  God  and  Father,  at  the  coming  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  with  all  his  saints. 

and  as  the  human  instrument  through  which  the  Divine  grace 
would  be  bestowed.  What  he  prays  is  that,  while  he  is  unable 
to  go,  God  will  bestow  that  grace  directly,  apart  from  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  Apostle. 

your  hearts.  Throughout  the  Bible,  both  in  the  O.  T.  and 
in  the  N.  T.,  the  heart  stands  for  the  whole  inner  life— the  will 
and  thought  as  well  as  the  affections.  It  is  the  inner  life  that 
the  Apostle  desires  to  see  made  firm  and  strong. 

unblameable  :  in  view  of  the  judgement  at  the  paronsia 
referred  to  further  on. 

holiness.  The  primary  idea  of  holiness  is  consecration.  In 
the  O.  T.  it  represents  what  is  set  apart  for  God,  and  therefore 
sacred  in  contrast  with  the  common  things  of  the  world  ;  but 
even  there  the  moral  character  of  holiness  gradually  emerges. 
God  cannot  endure  sin.  Therefore  what  is  devoted  to  God  must 
be  separated  from  sin.  God  Himself  is  holy  as  being  perfectly 
good  and  as  not  permitting  the  approach  of  evil.  Thus  in  Isa.  vi. 
while  the  seraphs  adore  Jehovah  as  holy  the  prophet  shrinks  in 
contrast  as  a  man  of  unclean  lips.  In  the  N.  T.  the  physical  con- 
ception of  holiness  in  ritual  disappears  and  the  moral  and  spiritual 
are  exclusively  present.  Thus  holiness  is  purity  considered  as 
a  condition  of  approach  to  God,  freedom  from  sin  in  His  sight. 
It  is  the  same  moral  state  as  goodness,  but  with  the  addition  that 
it  is  goodness  in  God's  presence  and  fcr  His  sake.  This  idea  of 
holiness  is  clear  in  2  Cor.  vii.  1,  where  we  read  of  'perfecting 
holiness  in  the  fear  of  God.'  In  the  present  instance  the  Apostle 
bases  holiness  on  love.  He  prays  that  the  love  of  his  friends  ma}* 
abound  in  order  that  their  hearts  may  be  made  strong  in  holiness. 
Since  sin  is  selfishness,  love  which  expels  selfishness  must  make 
for  purity,  the  ethical  aspect  of  holiness. 

before  our  God  and  Father.  The  clause  might  mean  (1)  that 
the  blamelessness  was  to  be  such  as  God  would  recognize,  or  (2) 
that  the  holiness  should  be  that  which  would  stand  in  His  sight, 
or  (3)  taking  the  two  ideas  together,  that  to  be  blamelessly  holy 
in  God's  sight  is  what  the  Apostle  desires  for  the  Thessalonians. 
This  third  interpretation  is  the  more  probable,  as  the  words  are 
all  closely  connected  together.  There  is  a  blamelessness  that 
may  stand  with  men,  but  while  this  is  inoffensive  and  not  chargeable 
with  crime,  it  may  not  amount  to  holiness.  To  be  blameless  before 
God,  holiness  must  be  added  to  virtue,  internal  purity  to  external 
goodness.  Then  there  is  a  holiness  that  is  not  without  blame, 
being  imperfect  and  defective.  The  conjunction  of  the  two  ideas 
is  necessary  for  satisfying  God  and  standing  clear  in  His  presence 
— blamelessness  as  regards  holiness. 


1 86  I  THESSALONIANS  3.  13 

the  coming:  //'/.  'the  presence,'  the  parousia;  see  note  on 
ii.  19.  This  will  be  the  occasion  of  the  judgement  of  Christians 
as  well  as  of  godless  people.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that 
Christians  should  be  ready  for  the  presence  of  Christ  by  having  that 
blamelessness  of  holiness  that  is  the  only  fit  condition  for  being 
presented  to  God. 

with  all  his  saints.  It  is  usual  to  address  Christians,  the 
members  of  the  apostolic  churches,  by  the  title  '  saints.'  Thus 
the  Roman  Christians  are  'called  to  be  saints'  (Rom.  i.  7N. 
Similarly  the  Corinthians  (i  Cor.  i.  2)  and  the  Christians  of  Achaia 
(2  Cor.  i.  1).  The  title  is  not  given  to  the  Galatians,  with  whom 
the  Apostle  was  much  displeased ;  but  neither  is  it  applied  to  the 
Thessalonians,  with  whom  he  was  greatly  pleased.  The  Christians 
in  the  churches  to  which  the  epistles  of  the  captivity  are  directed 
are  all  addressed  as  '  saints  '  (Eph.  i.  1  ;  Phil.  i.  1 ;  Col.  i.  2  ;  Philem. 
5,  7).  Thus  the  saints  are  not  the  blessed  dead,  but  men  and 
women  living  in  this  world ;  nor  are  they  a  selection  of  eminent 
souls  that  have  been  canonized  in  distinction  from  their  brethren, 
but  all  the  Christians.  The  case  is  different  here  :  Christ  does  not 
come  to  his  saints  as  he  would  come  if  they  were  the  members 
of  the  churches  on  earth  at  his  advent ;  he  comes  with  them.  They 
accompany  him.  This  is  only  a  variation  of  the  Jewish  picture 
of  the  Messiah  coming  with  his  angels  which  our  Lord  himself 
adopted  when  he  said,  *  when  he  cometh  in  the  glory  of  his  Father 
with  the  holy  angels '  (Mark  viii.  38).  Pearson  in  his  work  On 
Creed  understands  that  the  word  '  saints '  here  simply  means 
the  angels.  But  that  is  contrary  to  usage.  Paul  believes  in  the 
usually  accepted  idea  that  Christ  will  come  attended  by  angels, 
for  he  states  it  in  the  next  Epistle,  describing  '  the  revelation  of 
the  Lord  Jesus  from  heaven  with  the  angels  of  his  power '  (2  Thess. 
i.  7).  There  he  uses  the  word  'angels.'  If  he  has  'saints'  here 
his  meaning  cannot  be  the  same.  It  will  not  do  to  say  that  the 
word  'saints'  includes  both  men  and  angels.  That  too  is  quite 
contrary  to  usage.  It  seems  clear  that  in  the  present  case  Paul 
substitutes  the  saints  for  the  angels.  The  saints  are  to  be  Christ's 
attendants  at  his  parousia.  The  Apostle  can  only  mean  the  spirits 
of  the  departed  servants  of  God.  This  is  further  explained  by 
IV.  14,  where  Paul  says  that  they  'that  are  fallen  asleep  in  Jesus 
will  God  bring  with  Him.'  As  that  was  a  very  important  idea  in 
the  mind  of  the  Apostle  just  now,  and  in  some  measure  the  occasion 
of  writing  the  Epistle,  Paul  hints  at  it  here,  though  he  intends  to 
explain  it  fully  later  on.  Perhaps  the  idea  may  be  traced  back 
to  the  primitive  apocalypse  of  Daniel,  where,  after  the  vision  of 
one  like  a  son  of  man  coming  in  the  clouds  of  heaven  (Dan.  vii. 
I3)>  we  read  how  '  the  saints  of  the  Most  High  shall  receive  the 
kingdom,'  &c.  (verse  18). 


I  THESSALONIANS  4.  i  187 

Finally  then,  brethren,  we  beseech  and  exhort  you  in  4 
the  Lord  Jesus,  that,  as  ye  received  of  us  how  ye  ought 
to  walk  and  to  please  God,  even  as  ye  do  walk, — that  ye 

iv.  1-8.  Exhortation  to  purity  of  life.  Paul  urges  his  readers  to 
continue  as  they  have  begun  to  live,  but  going  further  in  the  same 
direction.  So  he  charged  them  before.  God's  will  is  for  their 
sanctification,  which  in  their  case  means  especially  abstinence 
from  sexual  impurity.  They  should  know  how  to  keep  the  body 
holy  in  contrast  to  the  lustfulness  of  the  heathen,  and  not  wrong 
one  another  in  this  matter,  since  God  is  the  Avenger.  The  Divine 
call  was  not  for  uncleanness,  but  for  holiness.  He  who  rejects  this 
message  goes  beyond  the  rejection  of  a  man,  he  is  renouncing 
God  and  His  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

1.  Finally.  How  can  this  word  occur  when  we  are  only  half- 
way through  the  Epistle  ?  The  Revisers  have  substituted  it  for 
'  Furthermore,'  which  was  the  rendering  of  the  A.  V.,  and  this  is 
more  correct  as  a  translation  of  the  original,  which  means  literally 
1  For  the  rest.'  But  the  Greek  word  does  not  necessarily  imply 
that  the  writing  is  coming  to  an  end.  Here  we  see  it  occurs 
before  half  the  Epistle  is  written.  Similarly  we  have  it  in  the 
middle  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  (iii.  i\  It  has  been  said 
that  it  indicates  an  intention  to  close  ;  but  that  the  rush  of  fresh 
thoughts  leads  in  each  case  to  additions  previously  not  con- 
templated. But  the  word  does  not  mean  this.  It  rather  points 
to  a  transition  than  to  a  termination.  It  contemplates  all  the 
subjects  that  remain  to  be  dealt  with,  but  these  need  not  be  few, 
nor  the  treatment  of  them  brief. 

then:  in  view  of  what  has  just  been  said  about  being 
blameless  in  holiness  at  the  coming  of  Christ.  This  is  a  great 
motive  for  the  purity  of  life  about  which  the  Apostle  is  about  to 
speak. 

"brethren :  the  specific  title  of  Christians  among  themselves. 

in  the  I»ord  Jesus :  not  '  by  the  Lord  Jesus '  as  in  the  A.  V. 
This  is  not  a  form  of  adjuration.  The  language  is  in  what  we 
may  call  the  Christian  dialect.  It  is  not  to  be  interpreted  by  the 
ordinary  usages  of  Greek  literature.  It  is  as  Christians,  with 
reference  to  their  close  relation  to  Jesus  Christ,  that  the  Apostle 
exhorts  his  readers. 

as  ye  received  of  us:  when  the  missionaries  were  at 
Thessalonica. 

to  walk:  a  Hebraism  for  the  conduct  of  life.  Thus  it  is 
said,  'Enoch  walked  with  God'  (Gen.  v.  22).  According  to  Paul 
Christianity  is  not  merely  concerned  with  the  crisis  of  conversion, 
or  public  worship,  or  the  blessedness  of  heaven.  It  is  for  the 
continuous  course  of  life  in  the  world  day  by  day. 


188  I  THESSALONIANS  4.  2-4 

2  abound  more  and  more.     For  ye  know  what  charge  we 

3  gave  you  through  the  Lord  Jesus.     For  this  is  the  will 
of  God,    eve?i  your  sanctification,  that  ye  abstain  from 

4  fornication ;  that  each  one  of  you  know  how  to  possess 


and  to  please  God:  i.e.  by  the  way  in  which  they  walk, 
walking  so  as  to  please  God. 

abound:  in  walking  so  as  to  please  God.  This  expression 
delicately  implies  that  the  Thessalonians  are  already  living  in  the 
right  way  in  accordance  with  the  apostolic  injunctions.  They 
are  not  rebuked  as  though  their  walk  were  wrong,  or  urged  to 
commence  the  right  course  as  though  they  were  sitting  in 
indolence,  but  simply  encouraged  to  do  better  in  the  course  they 
are  now  following. 

2.  charge:  literally,  '  precepts,'  '  commands.'  The  Apostle  had 
not  merely  given  the  Thessalonians  the  invitations  of  the  gospel, 
he  had  followed  these  up  with  practical  directions  to  guide  the 
conduct  of  his  new  converts. 

through  the  Lord  Jesus:  on  the  ground  of  the  authority 
of  Christ.  It  was  as  Christ's  messenger  that  Paul  gave  these 
commands.  They  were  not  his  own  ideas  urged  by  his  own  will. 
The  mind  and  will  of  Christ  were  behind  him  when  he  issued 
them.  It  was  therefore  by  reason  of  their  relation  to  Christ  that 
they  had  weight.  Cf.  '  I  beseech  you,  brethren,  through  the 
name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  ye  all  speak  the  same 
thing,'  &c.  (1  Cor.  i.  10).     Cf.  Rom.  xii.  i,  xv.  31 ;  2  Cor.  x.  1. 

3.  the  will  of  God  :  the  thing  that  God  wills. 
sanctification.     The  Greek  word   signifies   the   process  of 

being  sanctified.  This  is  God's  will,  that  His  people  should  be 
sanctified.  To  sanctify  means  primarily  'to  set  apart  for  God.' 
Thus  it  has  the  same  original  meaning  as  'to  make  holy.'  But 
for  those  who  are  morally  evil  this  necessarily  involves  a  cleansing, 
because  impurity  cannot  be  brought  into  the  presence  of  God. 
Thus  we  come  to  the  secondary  meaning  of  sanctifying,  the 
process  of  purification  which  fits  souls  to  be  consecrated  to  God. 
In  the  N.  T.  the  two  ideas  are  interwoven,  and  sanctification 
is  purification  for  the  sake  of  devotion  to  God.  See  note  on 
'  holiness,'  iii.  13.  The  words  that  follow  shew  that  sanctification 
is  directly  related  to  purity  of  character.  In  writing  to  new 
converts  from  heathenism  Paul  felt  it  necessary  to  be  very  urgent 
on  the  point  of  sexual  morality.  Nothing  is  more  wonderful  in 
the  progress  of  Christianity  among  the  Greek  cities  than  its 
maintenance  of  a  standard  of  purity  in  startling  contrast  to  the 
comparative  indifference  of  paganism  in  regard  to  this  matter. 

4.  know  hew.     A  mere  effort  of  will  was  not  enough.     The 


I  THESSALONIANS  4.  5  189 

himself  of  his  own  vessel  in  sanctification  and  honour, 
not  in  the  passion  of  lust,  even  as  the  Gentiles  which  5 


lofty  ideal  must  be  conceived  and  comprehended,  and  then  the 
way  to  attain  it  by  the  grace  of  Christ  understood. 

his  own  vessel.  The  commentators  have  been  divided 
between  two  explanations  of  this  metaphor,  some  taking  it  to 
mean  'his  own  body,'  others  'his  own  wife.'  Most  now  incline 
to  the  latter  meaning ;  the  language  is  more  easily  explained 
with  this  reference  in  mind,  (i)  The  word  'possess1  is  out  of 
place  with  regard  to  a  man's  body.  It  fits  in  better  with  the 
idea  of  having  a  wife.  (2)  The  strong  phrase  '  his  own '  seems 
superfluous  if  the  body  is  intended  ;  it  would  be  enough  to  say 
'his  vessel'  for  'his  body.'  But  with  reference  to  a  wife  it 
excludes  adultery  with  other  women  who  are  not  'his  own.* 
(3)  While  we  never  meet  with  the  image  of  a  'vessel'  for  the 
body,  we  do  meet  with  it  elsewhere  for  a  wife  in  the  passage 
'  giving  honour  unto  the  woman,  as  unto  the  weaker  vessel '  (i  Pet. 
iii.  7),  where  the  mention  of  'honour'  in  connexion  with  the 
'vessel,'  as  in  the  passage  before  us,  suggests  that  Peter  actually 
had  our  passage  in  mind  when  writing.  It  is  now  generally 
admitted  that  i  Peter  contains  several  allusions  to  the  Epistles 
of  Paul.  Elsewhere  the  image  of  a  vessel  is  used  for  men,  e.  g. 
'  vessels  of  wrath '  (Rom.  ix.  22).  In  such  passages  it  does  not 
represent  the  body,  but  the  whole  person.  For  these  reasons 
it  would  seem  that  the  Apostle  is  here  following  up  his  admonition 
to  abstain  from  the  licence  of  pagan  immorality  by  urging  each 
man  to  be  faithful  to  his  own  wife. 

5.  even  as  the  Gentiles.  This  might  seem  to  imply  that  the 
readers  were  Jews  ;  but  other  passages  make  it  certain  that  such 
was  not  the  case,  e.  g.  '  how  ye  turned  unto  God  from  idols '  (i.  9  ; 
see  Introduction,  p.  12).  But  Paul  is  a  Jew,  and  to  the  Jew 
Gentile  and  heathen  are  equivalent  terms.  Then  he  regards 
Christians  as  spiritual  Israelites,  the  true  Israel  of  God,  in  contrast 
with  whom  the  unconverted  pagan  world  is  still  Gentile.  He  is 
here  referring  to  the  vicious  habits  of  the  heathen. 

which  know  not  God.  In  analysing  the  genesis  and  develop- 
ment of  the  world's  wickedness  Paul  traces  it  back  to  a  suppression 
of  the  knowledge  of  God  which  even  the  heathen  had  obtained 
from  the  observation  of  His  works  in  nature.  This  led  to  idolatry  ; 
idolatry  to  immorality  (see  Rom.  i.  18-25).  Or  perhaps  ignorance 
of  God  might  be  thought  some  excuse  for  the  vices  of  paganism. 
That  excuse  the  Thessalonians  do  not  possess.  Then  it  would  be 
peculiarly  wicked  for  them  with  their  new  light  to  fall  back  into 
the  practices  of  heathen  darkness. 


igo  I  THESSALONIANS  4.  6 

6  know  not  God ;  that  no  man  transgress,  and  wrong  his 
brother  in  the  matter  :  because  the  Lord  is  an  avenger 
in  all   these   things,    as    also    we   forewarned   you   and 

6.  transgress.  The  A.  V.  has  '  go  beyond,'  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  Greek  ;  but  it  makes  no  sense  here.  The  Revisers  suggest 
'overreach,'  in  the  margin,  which  is  a  classic  usage  of  the  word. 
This  meaning  will  suit  very  well  if  the  words  further  on  rendered 
'in  the  matter'  be  translated  'in  business,'  but,  as  we  shall  see 
when  we  come  to  them,  that  is  not  their  probable  meaning.  The 
word  does  not  necessarily  involve  the  idea  of  the  cunning  that 
cheats.  It  will  be  suitable  for  any  case  in  which  a  man  wrongfully 
gets  the  better  of  another.  '  Transgress '  is  too  vague.  Injustice  to 
some  other  person  is  what  is  intended. 

wrong :  lit.  '  get  an  advantage  over.' 

Ms  brother:  his  fellow  Christian.  The  early  Christians 
treated  one  another  as  brothers. 

in  the  matter :  i.  e.  the  matter  just  referred  to.  With  tins 
meaning  the  passage  must  be  a  warning  against  adultery.  A  man 
is  not  to  overreach  his  brother  or  get  an  advantage  over  him  by 
an  intrigue  with  his  brother's  wife.  The  indefinite  expression  of 
the  A.  V.,  'in  any  matter/  is  clearly  wrong,  because  the  definite 
article  is  employed.  '  In  business '  would  be  a  possible  meaning 
of  the  words — though  for  this  the  Greek  should  be  in  the  plural — 
'in  affairs.'  Then  the  passage  would  be  a  warning  to  Christians 
not  to  take  advantage  of  their  fellow  Christians  and  wrong  them 
in  commercial  transactions,  a  very  suitable  admonition  in  itself. 
But  the  context  is  against  it.  We  have  seen  that  the  subject  of 
the  morality  of  the  sexes  precedes  this  passage ;  the  same 
subject  follows  in  verse  7,  and  that  verse  is  connected  with  the 
intermediate  sentences  by  the  word  'For';  i.e.  verse  7  gives 
the  reason  for  what  is  said  here.  This  seems  to  make  it  clear 
that  one  and  the  same  subject  is  under  treatment  throughout  the 
whole  paragraph. 

avenger  :  even  against  Christians  if  they  fall  into  the  sins  of 
the  heathen.  Paul  does  not  teach  that  the  forgiveness  of  all  past 
sin  with  which  the  Christian  life  commences  carries  with  it  im- 
munity in  regard  to  the  future.  The  coming  judgement  will  be 
for  Christians  who  fall  away  as  well  as  for  those  who  have  never 
been  brought  into  the  kingdom  of  grace. 

ail  these  things:  the  immorality  mentioned  first  as  well  as 
the  adultery  referred  to  later. 

forewarned:  rather,  'said  before,'  not  meaning  'before  the 
day  of  vengeance,'  as  'forewarned'  implies.  The  Apostle  must 
be  alluding  to  his  utterances  at  a  previous  time  when  in  Thessa- 
lonica.     The  margin  of  R.  V.  has,  '  told  you  plainly,'  but  there 


I  THESSALONIANS  4.  7,  8  191 

testified.  For  God  called  us  not  for  unclean ness,  but  in  7 
sanctification.  Therefore  he  that  rejecteth,  rejecteth  not  8 
man,  but  God,  who  giveth  his  Holy  Spirit  unto  you. 

are  no  clear  instances  of  this  meaning  in  the  N.  T.  (cf.  Gal.  i.  9). 
See  also  Acts  i.  16,  where  the  same  Greek  word  is  used  in 
the  phrase,  '  which  the  Holy  Ghost  spake  before  by  the  mouth  of 
David.' 

testified:  charged.  A  strong  word  which  in  Grimm's 
Dictionary  is  rendered  'testify  earnestly/  'solemnly  affirm.' 
In  2  Tim.  ii.  14  it  is  rendered  '  charge ' — '  charging  them  in 
the  sight  of  the  Lord.'  So  it  is  in  2  Tim.  iv.  1,  'I  charge 
thee  in  the  sight  of  God,  and  of  Christ  Jesus.' 

i7.  Tor  :  introducing  the  reasonable  justification  of  the  preceding 
admonition.  Immorality  is  not  merely  to  be  shunned  for  fear 
of  God's  vengeance.  It  is  the  contradiction  of  the  Christian 
vocation.  This  fact  makes  the  Divine  vengeance  on  it  especially 
just.  Such  a  breach  of  the  condition  of  discipleship  and  complete 
missing  of  its  end  deserves  severe  punishment. 

for  uncleanness:  pointing  to  the  purpose  and  end.  There 
is  a  similar  expression  in  Gal.  v.  13,  •  For  3'e,  brethren,  were 
called  for  freedom.'  Similarly,  'created  ...  for  good  works' 
(Eph.  ii.  10).  The  same  preposition  is  used  in  each  case.  The 
statement  is  not  superfluous,  since  there  were  pagan  cults  that 
involved  their  votaries  in  immoral  ceremonies. 

"but  in  sanctification.  Schmiedel  takes  this  to  mean  '  in  order 
to  be  sanctified ' ;  but  observe  the  change  of  preposition.  Besides, 
sanctification  is  a  process,  not  an  end.  Christians  are  undergoing 
the  purifying  and  consecrating  which  is  to  fit  them  for  future 
union  with  God.  Therefore  the  meaning  seems  to  be  that  the 
vocation  brings  Christians  into  the  condition  of  being  sanctified. 
This  is  the  opposite  state  to  one  of  indulgence  in  immorality. 

8.  he  that  rejecteth :  he  who  sets  this  advice  at  nought  and 
takes  no  account  of  it. 

hut  God :  because  the  call  came  from  God,  and  this  call  is  not 
for  uncleanness,  but  its  opposite.  The  Christian  who  indulges  in 
immorality  is  flouting  the  character  and  purpose  of  his  call,  and 
therefore  repudiating  the  message  of  God. 

•who  giveth:  in  the  present  (as  R.  V.)  according  to  the  best 
MSS.,  not  'who  hath  .  .  .  given,'  as  in  the  A.  V.  The  phrase  refers 
to  a  continuous  process.  This  might  mean  the  giving  of  the 
Spirit  to  a  succession  of  people,  each  new  convert  in  turn  receiving 
it.  But  as  the  Apostle  adds  '  unto  you,'  and  as  he  is  writing  to 
the  members  of  a  Christian  church  who  have  already  all  received 
the  first  gift  of  the  Spirit,  he  must  mean  that  God  is  continually 
giving  more  and  more  of  His  Spirit  to  each  one  of  them.  Paul  more 


192  I  THESSALONIANS  4.  9 

9      But  concerning  love  of  the  brethren  ye  have  no  need 

frequently  writes  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  given  in  the  past  by  one 
definite  act,  e.  g.  '  the  Holy  Ghost  which  was  given  unto  us ' 
(Rom.  v.  5) ;  •  God  sent  forth  the  Spirit  of  his  Son  into  our  hearts  ' 
(Gal.  iv.  7)  ;  see  also  2  Cor.  i.  22,  v.  5.  Here  we  have  an  ad- 
ditional plea.  Not  only  did  God  call  the  Thessalonians  at  the 
first.  He  is  continually  breathing  His  Spirit  into  them.  But 
the  purpose  of  this  is  sanctification  ;  the  Spirit  of  God  is  the  Holy 
Spirit.  To  live  licentiously  while  receiving  this  gift  is  grossly 
insulting  to  the  Giver.  The  obligation  to  purity,  growing  out  of 
the  reception  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  is  similarly  urged  by  the  Apostle 
when  writing  to  the  Corinthians,  '  know  ye  not  that  your  body 
is  a  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost  which  is  in  you,  which  ye  have 
from  God?'  (1  Cor.  vi.  19). 

iv.  9-12.  Exhortation  to  increase  of  brotherly  love  in  the  church, 
and  quiet  uidustry  in  the  ivorld.  The  Thessalonians  being  taught 
by  God  to  love  their  fellow  Christians,  and  practising  the  duty 
among  all  their  brethren  in  Macedonia,  do  not  need  to  be  reminded 
of  it.  Still  the  Apostle  exhorts  them  to  increase  in  this  funda- 
mental grace  of  character.  At  the  same  time  he  recommends  a 
quiet  life  of  diligent  activity  at  their  handicraft  work,  that  they 
may  stand  honourably  with  the  world  without  and  duly  provide 
for  their  own  necessities. 

9.  But :  better,  '  Now.'  The  word  is  frequently  used  to  indicate 
a  transition  to  a  fresh  subject,  e.  g.  '  Now  concerning  spiritual  gifts ' 
(1  Cor.  xii.  1), '  Now  concerning  the  collection  for  the  saints '  (xvi.  i), 
&c.     It  recurs  with  this  meaning  at  iv.  13,  v.  1,  12. 

love  of  tlie  "brethren:  this  is  expressed  in  the  Greek  by 
one  word,  Philadelphia,  which  has  a  fixed  and  definite  meaning 
wherever  it  occurs  in  the  N.  T.,  standing  for  the  affection  of 
Christians  for  one  another.  It  involves  the  esprit  de  corps 
of  an  organized  community  to  which  the  members  are  devoted, 
but  it  is  much  deeper,  and  partakes  of  a  family  nature.  Jesus  had 
exhibited  this  love  in  his  own  person  and  character,  not  only 
honouring  but  claiming  as  brothers  and  sisters  all  who  did  the  will 
of  God  (Mark  iii.  35)  ;  and  nothing  is  more  indicative  of  the  way 
in  which  his  spirit  went  with  his  gospel  than  the  fact  that  even 
in  remote  Greek  cities  no  sooner  was  faith  in  Christ  obtained  than 
this  family  feeling  also  sprang  up  among  the  converts.  Nothing 
approaching  it  is  recorded  of  the  pagan  religious  societies  that 
were  spreading  through  the  empire  at  this  time,  an  external 
resemblance  to  which  might  be  seen  in  the  Christian  churches. 
Harnack  points  to  '  love  of  the  brethren  '  as  one  of  the  two 
most  marked  peculiarities  of  the  early  Christians,  the  other 
being  '  enthusiasm.' 

ye  have:  the  Syro-Latin  text  (here  represented  by  the  MSS. 


I  THESSALONIANS   4.  10,  n  193 

that  one  write  unto  you  :  for  ye  yourselves  are  taught  of 
God  to  love  one  another  j  for  indeed  ye  do  it  toward  all  10 
the  brethren  which  are  in  all  Macedonia.    But  we  exhort 
you,  brethren,  that  ye  abound  more  and  more ;  and  that  1 1 


D*FG,  and  the  Vulgate  and  one  of  the  Syrian  versions)  has  '  we 
have,'  a  not  uncommon  change  which  Nestle  points  out  may  be 
due  to  the  habit  of  the  reader  of  Scripture  in  public  worship  of 
thus  associating  himself  with  his  hearers.  Similarly  perhaps  it  is 
owing  to  the  use  of  Scripture  in  the  church  services  that  we  some- 
times meet  with  the  change  of  direct  statements  into  exhortations. 

no  need.  Ellicott  treats  this  remark  as  a  'rhetorical  turn,' 
meaning  a  polite  and  insinuating  way  of  conveying  advice  ;  but 
there  is  reason  to  conclude  from  other  statements  of  the  Apostle 
that  the  Thessalonians  were  exceptionally  marked  by  kindliness 
and  generosity  of  spirit  (e.  g.  2  Cor.  viii.  1). 

one.  A.V.  has  'I.'  The  Greek  verb  is  in  the  infinitive 
without  any  pronoun.  Thus  the  phrase  is  general.  The  Thessa- 
lonians did  not  need  an  exhortation  on  this  matter  from  any 
human  correspondent. 

taught  of  God:  by  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God  on  their 
hearts.  This  is  why  they  did  not  need  a  human  counsellor 
concerning  brotherly  love. 

to  love.  The  form  of  the  Greek  is  peculiar  here.  It  has  a  pre- 
position signifying  an  end  or  purpose.  The  exact  expression 
means,  '  ye  are  God's  pupils  for  this  purpose — that  ye  may  love 
one  another.'  This  is  the  great  object  that  God  has  in  view,  the 
supreme  reason  why  He  is  schooling  them. 

10.  all  the  brethren,  &c.  :  not  only  in  their  own  church,  but 
in  neighbouring  churches.  We  only  know  of  two  of  these  centres 
of  Christian  life,  viz.  Philippi  and  Bercea.  But  possibly  there  were 
also  scattered  believers  who  had  heard  the  missionaries  when 
marketing  in  the  towns. 

all  Macedonia :  the  Roman  province  of  that  name.  Wherever 
there  were  Christians  in  Macedonia  the  Thessalonians  manifested 
brotherly  love  for  them.  The  expression  'a//  Macedonia'  was 
in  accordance  with  the  Apostle's  large  way  of  speaking  in  the 
sanguine  spirit  that  anticipated  winning  all  for  Christ.  Thus 
he  writes  of  'all  Achaia'  (2  Cor.  i.   1). 

abound  more  and  more :  i.  e.  in  love  of  the  brethren. 

11.  study :  lit.  '  make  it  your  ambition.'  The  primary  meaning 
of  the  word  is  '  to  be  fond  of  honour ' ;  thence  comes  the  secondary 
meaning,  '  to  be  ambitious.'  Paul  uses  it  in  two  other  places — 
Rom.  xv.  20,  where  according  to  the  R.  V.  we  read,  '  making  it  my 
aim  to  preach  the  gospel,'  &c,  and  2  Cor.  v.  9,  'we  make  it  our 

(9>  o 


i94  I  THESSALONIANS    1.   u 

ye  study  to  be  quiet,  and  to  do  your  own  business,  and 
12  to  work  with  your  hands,  even  as  we  charged  you  ;  that 
ye  may  walk  honestly  toward  them  that  are  without,  and 
may  have  need  of  nothing. 

aim  ...  to  be  well-pleasing  unto  him.'  This  milder  sense  of 
the  word  is  adopted  by  Ellicott  here  ;  but  Schmiedel  adopts  the 
stronger  meaning ',  which  is  more  in  accordance  with  usage  as  well 
as  etymology. 

to  be  quiet.  The  paradox  is  striking.  Ambition  is  usually  for 
publicity,  noise,  stir  in  the  world.  Paul  would  have  the  end  of 
ambition  to  be  the  attainment  of  quiet.  This  advice,  together  with 
what  follows,  suggests  the  idea  that  the  Apostle  fears  the  Thessa- 
lonians  are  too  restless.  In  his  second  letter  he  distinctly  says 
that  he  hears  that  some  of  them  are  '  busybodies'  (a  Thess.  iii.  n). 

work  with  your  hands.  This  shews  that  they  were  artizans. 
It  was  a  working-man's  church.  Probably  many  of  them  were 
weavers,  as  weaving  was  an  industry  carried  on  at  Thessalonica. 
Thus  their  position  was  not  unlike  that  of  Paul  the  tent-maker. 
But  the  advice  here  given  suggests  that  they  were  becoming 
indifferent  to  their  daily  toil  in  the  new  enthusiasm  that  had 
taken  possession  of  them.  There  was  no  fault  to  be  found  with 
them  in  the  matter  of  brotherly  love  ;  but  this  must  not  be  pleaded 
as  an  excuse  for  the  neglect  of  daily  duty. 

even  as  we  charged  you.  The  enthusiasm  had  appeared  as 
early  as  the  time  of  the  Apostle's  missionary  labours  in  Thessa- 
lonica, and  even  then  he  had  felt  it  necessary  to  warn  his  converts 
not  to  be  so  carried  away  with  religious  emotion  as  to  fail  in 
attention  to  their  business  affairs.  This  advice  is  not  often 
called  for  in  the  present  da}r. 

12.  honestly:   lit.  'becomingly,'  'decorously.'     An  idle  habit 
indulged  in  with  negligence  of  the  work  of  life  is  most  unseemly. 

them  that  are  without:  the  pagan  neighbours.  For 
Christians  to  be  seen  neglecting  the  duty  of  earning  their  daily 
bread  while  giving  themselves  up  to  religious  excitement  would 
prejudice  their  cause  in  the  eyes  of  the  world,  which  could 
appreciate  the  value  of  sober  work,  while  it  could  not  understand 
the  spiritual  pursuits  of  the  new  faith. 

have  need  of  nothing".  Ellicott  translates  this,  f  have  need  of 
no  man,'  i.  e.  not  to  be  dependent  on  any  one.  The  Greek  admits 
of  either  interpretation.  But  Schmiedel  points  out  that  the 
reference  to  persons  rather  than  things  would  be  far-fetched  and 
not  so  clear.     Moreover,  it  would  be  somewhat  harsh.     We  do 

1  rEure  Ehre  darein  zu  setzen.' 


I  THESSALONIANS  4.  13  u)S 

But  we  would  not  have  you  ignorant,  brethren,  con-  13 
cerning  them  that  fall  asleep  ;  that  ye  sorrow  not,  even 

not  want  to  feel  that  wc  have  need  of  nobody.  The  notion  is 
churlish.  But  it  is  reasonable  that  people  should  make  proper 
provision  for  themselves  and  their  families  by  their  own  industry. 
Thus  Paul  advances  two  reasons  for  assiduity  in  common  work  : 
(1)  Seemliness  of  behaviour  in  the  eyes  of  the  world,  and  (2) 
avoiding  want. 

iv.  13-18.  The  Parousia.  The  Thessalonians  are  not  to  be 
without  the  hope  of  seeing  their  departed  friends  again.  God 
will  bring  them  back  when  Jesus  returns,  and  we  who  are  alive 
at  the  time  shall  not  then  have  precedence  of  them,  because  at  the 
coming  of  the  Lord  the  dead  Christians  will  rise  in  the  first  place, 
and  after  that  those  living  at  the  time  will  join  them. 

13.  But:  rather,  '  How,' indicating  transition  to  another  topic. 
See  note  on  verse  9. 

we  would  not  have  you  ignorant :  a  favourite  expression  of 
the  Apostle  when  he  is  about  to  introduce  some  new  assertion  or 
to  impart  some  new  teaching  (e.  g.  Rom.  i.  13,  xi.  25  ;  i  Cor.  x.  1, 
xii.  1  ;  2  Cor.  i.  8),  and  so  to  be  contrasted  with  such  expressions 
as  '  know  ye  not?'  (1  Cor.  iii.  16,  v.  6,  vi.  2,  &c),  or  '  ye  re- 
member '  (1  Thess.  ii.  9),  where  an  appeal  is  made  to  what  should 
be  already  in  mind  as  previously  taught  or  learnt  by  experience. 

them  that  fall  asleep.  The  best  MSS.  have  the  present 
participle,  not  the  perfect,  which  gave  the  A.  V.  the  expression 
•  them  which  are  asleep  ' — a  reading  of  the  Syro-Latin  text.  This 
present  tense  points  to  what  is  now  going  on.  The  temptation  to 
despair  is  most  keen  at  the  moment  of  loss.  The  thought  is  that 
as  one  and  another  of  the  Christians  are  taken  away,  even  while 
this  very  thing  is  happening  hope  must  not  be  lost.  The  image  of 
sleep  is  the  specifically  Christian  idea  of  death,  though  it  is  found 
in  the  O.  T.,  e.  g.  '  So  David  slept  with  his  fathers '  (1  Kings  ii. 
10),  and  even  in  pagan  writers — Homer,  for  instance,  who  has 
'He  slept  an  iron  sleep  '  {Iliad,  ii.  241),  Sophocles,  and  others.  But 
it  is  most  frequent  in  the  N.  T. ;  and  it  is  peculiarly  suitable  to  the 
Christian  idea  of  death,  first  as  being  a  safe  and  peaceful  rest  free 
from  terror,  and  then  as  giving  the  prospect  of  an  awakening. 

that  ye  sorrow  not.  The  comma  at  the  end  of  this  clause  is 
important.  The  idea  is  that  there  should  not  be  sorrow  at  all 
among  Christians,  not  that  their  sorrow  should  not  be  the  same  in 
kind  and  degree  as  that  of  the  heathen.  Human  nature  forbids  the 
absolute  following  of  such  advice.  But  when  we  think  of  the 
wild  abandonment  to  grief  that  accompanied  an  oriental  mourning 
we  can  understand  how  the  Apostle  would  deprecate  anything  of 
the  kind  in  the  case  of  Christians. 

O    2 


196  I  THESSALONIANS  4.  i4 

14  as  the  rest,  which  have  no  hope.     For  if  we  believe  that 
Jesus  died  and  rose  again,  even  so  them  also  that  are 

the  rest :  other  people  in  Thessalonica,  the  pagan  neighbours. 

no  hope:  i.e.  of  again  meeting  departed  friends.  The  old 
Greek  cemetery  at  Athens,  containing  pathetic  expressions  of 
love  for  the  departed,  and  its  sad  '  Farewells,'  without  any  hope 
of  meeting  the  beloved  parent  or  wife  or  child  again,  is  in  striking 
contrast  with  what  we  read  in  the  catacombs  at  Rome  of  the 
Christian  hope  of  life  beyond  the  grave.  Classic  writers  abound 
with  dreary  expressions  of  the  hopelessness  of  death.  Thus 
among  the  Greeks  Theocritus  says,  '  Hopes  are  among  the  living, 
but  the  dead  are  without  hope  '  {Idyll  iv.  42),  and  Catullus  among 
the  Romans,  'Suns  can  set  and  rise  again.  When  once  our  brief 
life  sets,  there  must  be  the  sleep  of  one  perpetual  night '  (v.  4  ;  see 
Jowett's  commentary  in  loc).  On  the  other  hand,  an  inscription  in 
the  catacomb  of  Callistus  begins,  '  Alexander  is  not  dead,  but 
he  lives  above  the  stars  and  his  body  rests  in  this  tomb  V  (Quoted 
in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities,  art.  'Catacombs.') 

14.  if  we  toelieve  that  Jesus  died  and  rose  again.  As  the  re- 
surrection of  our  Lord  was  thecorner-stone  of  the  Apostle's  faith,  he 
must  have  made  it  prominent  in  his  preaching  at  Thessalonica,  and 
must  have  looked  for  belief  in  his  testimony  to  it  among  his  converts. 
Therefore  he  could  say,  'we,  on  the  assumption  that  they  as  well 
as  he  accepted  it  as  an  established  fact.  Observe,  this  verse  is 
the  earliest  written  statement  of  our  Lord's  resurrection,  occurring 
as  it  does  in  the  first  of  Paul's  Epistles.  Thus  we  have  a  docu- 
mentary record  of  it  from  little  more  than  twenty  years  after  the 
event,  according  to  the  accepted  chronology,  and  even  with  less 
interval  of  time  if  we  admit  Harnack's  scheme  of  dates.  This  may 
be  compared  to  an  assertion  made  to-day  of  the  fall  of  the 
Beaconsfield  Cabinet  and  the  return  of  Mr.  Gladstone  to  power 
on  the  occasion  of  the  agitation  about  the  Bulgarian  atrocities 
made  by  a  contemporary  of  those  events. 

Jesus:  our  Lord's  personal  name  on  earth,  very  rarely  used 
by  itself  in  Paul's  Epistles.  Whenever  it  is  so  used  the  Apostle  is 
directing  attention  to  Christ  in  his  life  on  earth. 

died.  Observe,  it  is  never  said  that  Jesus  slept.  He  died  ; 
there  is  no  softening  of  that  fact.  It  stands  out  in  grim  horror  by 
its  close  juxtaposition  to  what  Is  asserted  of  his  people  who  are 
said  to  sleep. 

even  so.  Paul  takes  the  resurrection  of  Christ  as  at  once  the 
assurance  and  the  type  of  the  resurrection  of  Christians.  Both 
these  ideas  are  elaborately  worked  out  in  1  Cor.  xv. 

1  '  Alexander  mortuus  non  est  sed  vivit  super  astra  et  corpus  in  hoc 
tumulo  quiescit.' 


I  THESSALONIANS   4.  15  197 

fallen  asleep  in  Jesus  will  God  bring  with  him.     For  this  1 

them  also  that  are  fallen  asleep.  This  is  more  correct  than 
the  A.  V.,  'them  also  which  sleep,'  for  the  verb  is  in  the  aorist 
tense,  and  therefore  indicates  not  a  continuous  present  condition, 
but  a  single  past  action.  It  would  be  more  accurate  to  say,  'them 
also  that  were  put  to  sleep,'  since  the  verb  is  in  the  passive  voice  ; 
it  is  the  very  act  of  dying  compared  to  putting  to  sleep,  as  with 
a  child  whom  his  mother  hushes  to  slumber. 

in  Jesus.  This  cannot  be  a  correct  translation.  The  pre- 
position '  here  used  primarily  signifies  ■  through.'  Then  it  means 
'by'  in  the  sense  of  the  relation  of  an  agent  or  an  instrument. 
When  it  expresses  the  state  through  which  one  is  passing,  it  may 
sometimes  be  rendered  by  the  English  word  '  in,'  e.  g.  'those  who 
believe,  though  they  be  in  '  uncircumcision  '  (Rom.  iv.  n),  i.e. 
while  passing  through  that  condition  of  life.  For  this  sense  of  the 
preposition,  however,  there  must  be  some  indication  of  a  continuous 
state  or  process.  But  that  cannot  be  the  case  here,  since  the  aorist 
form  of  the  verb  indicates  a  single  action.  Therefore  we  must  say 
4  by,'  or  'through  Jesus.'     Two  interpretations  are  now  possible: 

(1)  To  connect  this  phrase  with  the  falling  asleep.  Then  it  will 
mean  'those  who  were  put  to  sleep  by  Jesus,1  a  beautiful  idea 
of  Christian  death,  but  one  nowhere  else  met  with  in  the  N.T. 

(2)  To  connect  the  phrase  with  the  words  that  follow,  reading  the 
whole  sentence  thus,  '  even  so  them  also  that  were  put  to  sleep 
will  God  through  Jesus  bring  with  Him.'  This  view,  perfectly 
legitimate  as  a  translation  of  the  original  Greek,  is  accepted  by 
Schmiedel.  It  indicates  that  while  it  is  God  who  effects  the 
resurrection,  He  will  do  this  through  the  instrumentality  of 
Christ,  with  whom  after  they  have  been  raised  the  departed 
Christians  will  return.  This  conception  is  more  in  harmony  with 
Paul's  teaching  generally,  in  which  Christ  is  seen  as  the  Divine 
agent  through  whom  God  creates  (Col.  i.  16)  and  redeems 
(Rom.  v.  1).  In  i  Cor.  xv.  22  the  Apostle  expressly  describes 
Christ  as  bringing  about  the  resurrection,  saying,  'As  in  Adam  all 
die,  so  also  in  Christ  shall  all  be  made  alive.' 

will  God  bring1.  The  originating  power  of  the  resurrection 
is  always  ascribed  to  God  who  raises  Christ  from  the  dead  ; 
though  here  it  is  also  through  him  that  God  raises  His  people. 

bring:  lit.  'lead,'  without  indicating  direction,  in  the  sense 
of  '  lead  to  us,'  implied  by  the  word  '  bring.'  The  idea  is  explained 
by  the  context.  When  Christ  comes  back  from  the  unseen  world 
the  departed  Christians  will  come  with  him.  Paul  conceives  of  this 
earth  as  then  revisited  by  the  blessed  dead.  Thus,  though  the 
word  rendered  '  bring '  does  not  imply  all  that  the  English  term 

1  5«d. 


xg8  I  THESSALONIANS  4.  15 

we  say  unto  you  by  the  word  of  the  Lord,  that  we  that 

contains,  that  term  goes  no  farther  than  what  is  suggested  in  the 
sequel.  The  same  Greek  word  is  used  in  Heb.  x.  10  where  we 
read  of  God  '  bringing  [lit.  '  leading  ']  many  sons  to  glory.' 

15.  For  :  pointing  to  the  explanation  of  the  previous  verse,  as 
that  verse,  introduced  by  the  same  conjunction,  is  the  justification 
of  its  predecessor.  This  is  one  of  the  common  features  of  the 
Apostle's  st3rle.  He  pushes  his  explanations  further  and  further 
back,  sometimes  with  quite  a  string  of  sentences  each  beginning 
with  '  For.'  These  are  not  parallel  sentences,  giving  several 
reasons  for  one  earlier  statement;  but  each  sentence  supports  that 
which  goes  before.  Still  the  whole  series  is  intended  to  sub- 
stantiate the  statement  with  which  the  paragraph  opens. 

this  we  say  :  an  emphatic  introduction  of  some  new,  impor- 
tant assertion. 

by  :  lit.  '  in.'  The  preposition  does  not  point  to  the  authority 
that  gives  Paul  a  right  to  speak,  but  to  the  nature  of  what  he  is 
saying.  This  preposition  is  very  common  in  the  N.  T.  as  an 
equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  b\  which  may  mean  'with'  as  well 
as  'in.'  Similarly  we  read,  'We  speak  of  God's  wisdom  in 
a  mystery'  (i  Cor.  ii.  7),  and,  'Unless  I  speak  to  you  either 
in  a  revelation,  or  in  knowledge,  or  in  prophecy,  or  in 
teaching'  (xiv.  6),  where  the  A.  V.  has  '  by,'  and  the  R.  V.  '  by 
way  of,'  e.  g.  '  by  way  of  revelation,'  &c,  i.  e.  indicating  the 
kind  of  speech.  The  case  before  us  is  analogous.  The  kind 
of  utterance  Paul  is  about  to  give  is  a  word  of  the  Lord.  We 
might  render  the  phrase,  'as  a  word  of  the  Lord'  (Schmiedel). 

the  word  of  the  Lord  :  lit.  '  a  word  of  the  Lord,'  one  specific 
word.  By  'the  Lord'  Paul  here  means  Jesus  Christ;  that  is 
indicated  by  other  references  to  the  same  title  in  the  words  that 
follow,  e.g.  'the  coming  of  the  Lord,'  'the  Lord  himself  shall 
descend,'  Sec.  The  phrase  may  be  explained  in  either  of  two 
ways  :  (1)  As  an  appeal  to  some  saying  of  Christ  during  his 
ministry  on  earth  ;  or  (2)  as  a  reference  to  the  inward  and  spiritual 
teaching  of  Christ.  There  is  nothing  in  the  gospels  that  corre- 
sponds to  Paul's  statements  here.  It  is  possible  that  he  is  referring 
to  some  traditional  saying :  but,  if  so,  probably  he  would  have  given 
the  utterance  more  directly,  as  for  instance  when  he  cites  a  saying 
not  in  the  gospels  with  the  phrase, '  He  himself  said '  (Acts  xxi.  35), 
or  when  he  wrote,  '  I  give  charge,  yea,  not  I,  but  the  Lord '  (1  Cor. 
vii.  10).  Here  his  method  is  quite  different ;  for  he  writes,  'We 
say  unto  you.'  Elsewhere  the  Apostle  claims  to  possess  direct 
teaching  from  Christ,  e.  g.  when  declaring  that  he  has  received 
his  gospel  '  through  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ'  (Gal.  i.  12)  ;  and 
probably  he  is  referring  to  something  of  the  kind  here. 

we  that  are  aUve.     The  use  of  the  first  person  evidently 


I  THESSALONIANS  4.  16  199 

are  alive,  that  are  left  unto  the  coming  of  the  Lord,  shall 
in  no  wise  precede  them  that  are  fallen  asleep.     For  the  16 

indicates  that  the  Apostle  is  expecting  to  be  of  the  number  of 
those  who  will  not  die  before  the  coming  of  Christ.  Five  years 
later,  when  he  is  writing  to  the  Corinthians,  this  expectation  is 
not  so  definitely  expressed,  the  Apostle  saying,  f  We  shall  not  all 
sleep,  but  we  shall  all  be  changed'  (r  Cor.  xv.  51),  a  prediction 
that  leaves  it  open  whether  he  himself  will  be  of  the  first  group, 
that  containing  those  who  sleep  (cf.  1  Cor.  i.  7,  8,iv.  5,  xvi.  22). 
Yet  another  five  years,  and  it  would  seem  that  the  Apostle  has 
definitely  renounced  the  idea  of  living  till  the  return  of  Christ,  for 
then  he  writes  of  his  '  desire  to  depart  and  be  with  Christ '  (Phil. 
i.  23,  but  cf.  iv.  5,  which  points  to  the  near  coming  of  Christ). 
Possibly  he  had  reached  this  stage  earlier,  i.  e.  by  the  middle 
period,  because  in  2  Corinthians,  written  only  a  few  months  after 
I  Corinthians  (just  cited),  he  speaks  of  the  possible  dissolution 
of 'the  earthly  house  of  our  tabernacle'  (2  Cor.  v.  1).  Ellicott 
considers  that  the  passage  before  us  i  supplies  no  certain  elements 
for  such  startling  deductions  '  as  that  the  Apostle  identified  himself 
with  the  first-named  group  and  expected  to  be  alive  at  the  Second 
Advent.  It  is  true  that  the  pronoun  f  we '  might  be  used  in- 
definitely for  all  Christians,  so  that  possibly  Paul  only  means  '  those 
of  us  who  will  be  alive,'  but  the  frequent  use  of  this  pronoun 
throughout  the  Epistle  with  a  definite  reference  to  the  Apostle 
himself  forbids  that  interpretation. 

in  no  wise :  a  double  negative  in  the  Greek,  meaning  '  certainly 
not,'  '  not  by  any  means'— a  strong  denial. 

precede:  a  great  improvement  in  the  R.V.  over  the  word 
\  prevent '  in  the  A.  V.,  which  is  there  used  in  an  old  English  sense, 
now  obsolete,  as  in  the  collect,  ;  Prevent  us,  O  Lord,'  &c.  ;  in 
Shakespeare,  '  So  shall  my  anticipation  prevent  your  discovery ' 
{Hamk ',  Act  ii.  Scene  3)  ;  and  in  Milton  : — 

'  Half  way  he  met 
His  daring  foe,  at  this  prevention  more 
Incens'd.'  {Paradise  Lost,  Book  vi.  line  129.) 

The  idea  is  that  those  living  on  the  earth  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's 
advent  shall  not  have  precedence  over  those  who  shall  have  died 
before  that  event.  It  would  seem  that  the  Thessalonians  feared 
that  their  deceased  friends  would  miss  the  joy  of  participating  in 
the  great  event,  the  joy  of  the  virgins  who  go  out  to  meet  the 
Bridegroom.  The  Apostle  assures  them  that  this  will  not  be  the 
case  ;  those  who  will  be  alive  at  the  time  will  have  no  advantage 
over  their  departed  brethren  in  being  the  first  to  welcome  Christ. 
Jt  is  to  be  remarked  that  this  quaint  fear  of  the  Thessalonians 


200  I  THESSALONIANS  4.  16 

Lord  himself  shall  descend  from  heaven,  with  a  shout, 

indicates  a  very  early  date  for  the  Epistle.  It  must  have  been  felt 
most  acutely  at  the  first  appearance  of  death  in  the  happy  com- 
munity. Previous  to  this,  it  would  seem,  the  enthusiastic  Christians 
at  Thessalonica  imagined  that  they  would  all  live  to  welcome 
the  return  of  Christ  to  earth.  The  first  breach  in  their  numbers 
disappointed  and  perplexed  them. 

16.  the  Lord  himself:    no  less  a  being.     The  phrase  suggests 
the  august  Presence. 

shall  descend  from  heaven  :  the  idea  being  that  Christ  is 
now  in  heaven  seated  at  the  right  hand  of  God  (Col.  iii.  i). 
Inasmuch  as  the  latter  statement  must  be  figurative,  the  infinite 
and  omnipresent  God  not  being  confined  to  a  physical  and  local 
throne,  it  follows  that  Christ's  descent  from  his  heavenly  seat 
should  not  be  expected  as  a  movement  in  space.  If  the  language 
which  describes  the  throne  of  God,  by  the  side  of  which  Jesus  is 
pictured  as  sitting,  cannot  be  taken  literally,  then  that  which 
indicates  his  coming  from  that  seat  to  another  place  must  be  equally 
metaphorical.  The  word  parousia,  or  '  presence,'  which  Paul 
uses  in  this  passage  and  elsewhere  is  less  figurative.  Christ "s 
presence  will  be  manifested,  and  to  our  limited  imagination  the 
truth  and  its  accompaniments  can  only  be  described  in  figurative 
language.  But  while  not  forgetting  its  figurative  form  we  must 
perceive  that  this  language  contains  a  great  idea,  the  real  presence 
of  Christ  revealing  itself  by  indubitable  signs  and  resulting  in 
stupendous  consequences. 

a  shout.  The  Greek  word  means  literally  'a  shout  ofcommand.' 
It  is  commonly  used  of  the  call  of  the  officer  in  a  ship  to  the 
rowers.  Plato  has  it  in  his  famous  description  of  the  soul  as 
a  charioteer  with  two  horses,  one  of  which  is  obedient  to  '  the 
word  of  command,'  while  the  other  is  restive  (Phaedrus,  253  d). 
Homer  uses  it  of  the  hero's  shout  to  his  followers  in  battle; 
Xenophon  of  the  huntsman's  call  to  his  dogs.  The  Vulgate  has 
in  jussu  ('with  a  command').  Two  questions  may  be  asked, 
Who  issues  the  word  of  command  ?  What  is  its  meaning  and 
purpose  ?  The  answer  to  neither  question  is  quite  clear.  The 
shout  might  be  supposed  to  come  either  from  Christ,  or  from  the 
archangel.  But  since  '  the  voice  of  the  archangel '  is  mentioned 
afterwards  as  something  additional  to  the  shout,  it  seems  more 
likely  that  the  shout,  or  rather  'word  of  command,'  is  ascribed 
to  Christ  himself,  like  the  captain  of  the  host  calling  to  his 
followers.  This  is  the  view  of  the  Greek  expositors  ;  so  also 
Schmiedel.  Ellicott  refers  it  to  the  archangel.  Nothing  is  said 
as  to  the  meaning  and  purpose  of  this  commanding  word  ;  but  as 
the  rising  of  the  dead  follows,  it  would  seem  that  the  shout  is  the 
call  to  slumbering  souls  to  awake. 


I  THESSALONIANS  4.   17  201 

with  the  voice  of  the  archangel,  and  with  the  trump  of 
God :  and  the  dead  in  Christ  shall  rise  first :  then  we 
that  are  alive,  that  are  left,  shall  together  with  them  be 
caught  up  in  the  clouds,  to  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air : 

the  voice  of  the  archangel :  following  and  echoing  the 
Lord's  word  of  command.  Jesus  had  spoken  of  the  summons 
coming  from  'angels'  (Matt.  xxiv.  31),  and  Paul  refers  to  Christ's 
coming  '  with  the  angels  of  his  power'  in  2  Thess.  i.  7.  The  only 
passage  in  the  N.  T.  besides  that  before  us  where  we  meet  with 
the  word  '  archangel '  is  Jude  9,  and  there  the  archangel  is  named 
'Michael.'  The  word  does  not  appear  in  the  O.T.  But  in 
Daniel  we  meet  with  Michael  described  as  '  one  of  the  chief 
princes'  (x.  13),  'your  prince'  (verse  21),  and  '  the  great  prince 
which  standeth  up  for  the  children  of  thy  people'  (xii.  1). 
Michael  appears  again  in  the  Apocalypse,  and  there  as  the  leader 
of  the  angels,  for  we  read  '  Michael  and  his  angels  fought  against 
the  dragon '  (Rev.  xii.  7). 

the  trump  of  God.  The  genitive  is  possessive.  The  angel 
sounds  God's  trumpet.  The  conception  of  this  trumpet  comes 
down  from  the  description  of  the  giving  of  the  law  at  Sinai  with 
'the  voice  of  the  trumpet  exceeding  loud'  (Exod.  xix.  16).  In 
Isaiah  it  is  said  that  for  the  return  of  the  scattered  Israelites  '  the 
great  trumpet  shall  be  blown '  (Isa.  xxvii.  13).  The  trumpet 
appears  again  in  2  Esdras  vi.  23.  Jesus  mentions  it  in  connexion 
with  his  return  (Matt.  xxiv.  31),  and  Paul  writes  of  'the  last  trump' 
when  '  the  dead  shall  be  raised  incorruptible'  (1  Cor.  xv.  52).  In 
the  Apocalypse  seven  angels  appear  each  with  a  trumpet  (Rev.  viii. 
a).  All  these  instances  indicate  the  trumpet  as  an  instrument 
to  rouse  and  summon,  after  the  manner  of  the  use  of  trumpets 
among  the  Jews  in  time  of  war  (Num.  x.  9),  and  in  the  temple 
ritual  (2  Chron.  v.  12). 

the  dead  in  Christ :  deceased  Christians. 

shall  rise  first:  before  the  living  meet  Christ.  The  meaning 
is  not  that c  the  dead  in  Christ '  shall  rise  before  the  dead  who  are 
not  in  Christ.  There  is  no  reference  to  the  latter  class  in  the 
whole  passage,  where  the  two  contrasted  groups  are  living  and 
dead  Christians.  The  next  sentence  makes  this  indubitable.  First 
the  dead  in  Christ  are  raised  ;  then  follow— not  the  other  dead 
people— but  'we  that  are  alive.' 

17.  then:  immediately  ;  the  words  do  not  allow  of  any  interval. 

we  that  are  alive,  &c.     See  note  on  verse  15. 

in  the  clouds :  in  accordance  with  the  vision  in  Dan.  vii.  13 
that  the  son  of  man  comes  '  with  the  clouds  of  heaven.'  Jesus 
mentions  this   when  predicting  his  return  (Matt.  xxiv.  30,  xxvi. 


202  I  THESSALONIANS   4.  is 

iS  and  so  shall  we  ever   be   with   the   Lord.      Wherefore 
comfort  one  another  with  these  words. 


64).  The  ascension  is  described  as  Christ  being  taken  up  into 
a  cloud,  after  which  angels  declare  that  he  will  return  '  in  like 
manner*  (Acts  i.  9,  11).  Perhaps  the  conception  may  be  traced 
back  to  the  poetic  image  of  the  Psalmist,  who  says  of  God,  '  who 
maketh  the  clouds  his  chariot '  (Ps.  civ.  3). 

in  :  lit.  '  into.'  If  the  preposition1  is  used  in  that  sense  it  must 
mean  lifted  up  from  the  ground  into  the  air,  so  that  the  sentence 
would  run  thus  :  '  caught  up  in  the  clouds  into  the  air  to  meet  the 
Lord.'  But  the  strict  limitation  of  the  preposition's  meaning 
is  not  observed  in  the  Greek  of  the  first  century,  which  allows 
of  its  being  used  in  the  static  sense  of  our  word  '  in.'  This  gives 
us  the  more  simple  signification,  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  English 
versions.  The  Lord  is  met  in  the  air  while  he  is  in  the  act 
of  descending  from  heaven  to  earth. 

and  so.  The  result  is  brought  about  in  the  way  just  indicated. 
Thus,  meeting  Christ  in  the  air,  it  comes  to  pass  that  we  shall 
be  with  him  for  ever  after. 

18.  comfort  one  another.  The  thought  goes  backto  thesituation 
indicated  in  verse  13.  The  Thessalonians  were  grieving  over  the 
fact  that  some  of  their  number  had  died  previous  to  the  parousia, 
fearing  that  these  people  would  miss  sharing  in  that  event.  Paul 
has  declared  that  so  far  from  anything  of  the  kind  being  the  case, 
the  deceased  Christians  will  even  anticipate  their  living  brethren 
in  meeting  Christ. 

The  earnestness  of  the  Apostle's  treatment  of  this  subject  shews 
that  he  considers  the  issues  at  stake  to  be  very  grave.  This  would 
lead  us  to  think  that  something  much  more  serious  than  missing 
the  sight  of  the  return  of  Christ  as  a  sort  of  celestial  pageant  must 
be  feared  by  the  Thessalonians.  It  would  seem,  as  Schmiedel 
holds,  that  with  this  there  was  feared  to  be  lost  all  the  future  life 
and  blessedness  of  union  with  Christ,  the  being  *  for  ever  with  the 
Lord.'  Thus  these  distressed  people  would  seem  to  be  much 
in  the  same  state  as  those  members  of  the  Corinthian  church  who 
did  not  believe  in  a  resurrection,  though  not,  as  in  the  latter  case, 
owing  to  any  deliberate  rejection  of  the  doctrine  (see  1  Cor.  xv.  12). 
The  sorrowing  without  hope,  like  the  pagans,  involves  some  such 
attitude  towards  the  future.  These  new  converts  had  taken  in  the 
idea  of  the  return  of  Christ,  and  with  it  the  thought  that  his  people 
would  meet  him  in  order  to  live  with  him  for  ever,  thus  escaping 
the  doom  of  death  by  not  dying  at  all.  They  did  not  see  that 
those  who  died  could  enter  into  the  same  state  of  blessedness. 


I   THESSALONIANS   5.  i,  2  203 

But  concerning  the  times  and  the  seasons,  brethren,  5 
ye  have  no  need  that  aught  be  written  unto  you.     For  2 

Paul's  new  revelation  is  to  remove  their  distress  by  shewing  that 
this  is  a  mistake,  since  the  joy  and  privilege,  not  only  of  meeting 
Christ  at  the  parousia,  but,  what  is  infinitely  more  important,  living 
with  him  for  ever,  is  for  the  blessed  dead  as  surely  as  for  the  living, 
and  even  with  a  certa;n  precedence  for  the  former.  The  reason 
for  this  precedence  is  not  stated  ;  but  it  may  be  that,  being  already 
in  the  unseen  world,  they  will  be  spiritually  nearer  to  Christ  when 
he  manifests  himself  than  those  who  are  still  going  through  their 
life  on  earth. 

v.  i-ii.  Sons  of  light.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  Apostle  to 
wiite  anything  about  the  time  of the  parousia,  as  his  readers  know 
that  this  will  be  sudden  and  unexpected.  But  they  are  not  in 
darkness  ;  so  that  the  event  will  be  no  terror  to  them,  like  the  visit 
of  a  thief.  Being  sons  of  the  day  we  should  act  accordingly  with 
becoming  sobriety,  arming  ourselves  against  any  possible  attack, 
especially  since  the  purpose  of  our  Lord's  death  on  our  behalf  was 
that  whether  awake  or  asleep  we  should  live  with  him. 

1.  the  times  and  the  seasons.  The  word  rendered  'times' 
indicates  time  generally,  the  simple  idea  of  the  succession  of 
moments,  e.  g.  '  after  a  long  time '  (Matt.  xxv.  19),  '  after  so  long 
a  time'  (Heb.  iv.  7),  'there  shall  be  time  no  longer'  (Rev.  x.  6). 
In  the  plural  it  represents  several  periods  of  time.  The  word 
rendered  '  seasons '  stands  for  specific  epochs,  points  of  time, 
crises,  or  periods  in  some  way  distinguished  from  one  another. 
It  may  be  illustrated  by  our  four  seasons  of  the  year,  with  their 
characteristic  differences  as  Spring,  Summer,  Autumn,  Winter ; 
but  it  has  a  much  wider  application.  Thus  we  have  'the  season 
[A. V.  and  R.V.  have  'time']  of  harvest'  (Matt.  xiii.  30),  'the 
season  of  figs'  (Mark  xi.  13),  'in  due  season1  (Rom.  v.  6).  These 
two  words  are  frequently  found  together  (e.  g.  Eccles.  iii.  1  ; 
Dan.  ii.  21  ;  Wisd.  of  Sol.  viii.  8  ;  Acts  i.  7).  Thus  the  phrase 
as  a  whole  means  both  the  periods  of  time  that  are  to  elapse 
before  the  coming  of  Christ — how  many  days  or  years — and  the 
specific  epochs,  with  their  several  characteristics,  that  may  have 
to  accomplish  their  own  special  ends  or  prepare  for  the  parousia 
and  usher  it  in.  (See  Trench,  Synonyms  of  the  New  Testament,  lvii.) 
no  need,  &c. :  in  contrast  with  what  was  needed.  They  had 
great  need  to  be  set  right  as  to  what  the  parousia  involved  ;  but 
the  questions  as  to  when  it  would  happen  and  at  what  kind  of 
epoch  in  history  did  not  require  to  be  answered.  If  only  the 
survivors,  only  those  who  escaped  death,  were  to  share  in  the 
coming  blessedness,  these  questions  would  be  of  the  most  acute 
interest,  seeing  that  the  longer  the  final  consummation  was  post- 


2o4  I   THESSALONIANS  5.  3 

yourselves  know  perfectly  that  the  day  of  the  Lord  so 
3  cometh  as  a  thief  in  the  night.     When  they  are  saying, 

poned  the  more  numerous  would  those  Christians  be  who  would 
have  to  miss  it  by  dying  first.  The  Apostle  has  dispelled  that 
delusion.  Then  it  matters  not  how  long  the  interval  of  waiting 
may  be.  But  further,  there  is  quite  another  way  of  looking  at 
this  great  event.  It  will  be  the  advent  of  the  Judge  of  all,  the 
return  of  the  Master  to  call  his  servants  to  account,  the  coming 
of  the  King  to  destroy  his  enemies.  Those  who  would  view 
His  coming  with  terror  might  be  anxiously  inquiring  how  near 
the  dread  day  would  be ;  those  who  were  unprepared  for  it  might 
shrink  from  the  startling  occurrence.  Not  so  Paul's  readers  ;  the 
sequel  indicates  why  they  have  no  alarming  concern  on  this  point. 
They  already  know  of  the  suddenness  that  will  characterize  the 
parousia.  But  this  thought  need  not  distress  them,  because  it 
will  be  no  terror  to  them. 

2.  yourselves  know:  from  the  teaching  received  during  Paul's 
stay  at  Thessalonica. 

perfectly  :  better,  '  accurately.'  There  was  no  haziness  about 
the  missionaries'  instructions  on  this  point. 

the  day  of  the  Lord :  a  familiar  O.  T.  phrase  used  by  the 
prophets  for  the  time  of  Jehovah's  interference  whether  (i)  to 
deliver  His  oppressed  people  and  destroy  the  power  of  their 
enemies  (Isa.  xiii.  6),  or  (2)  to  bring  judgement  on  Israel  herself 
(Amos  v.  18).  In  later  ages  it  came  to  be  identified  with  the  time 
of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  In  the  N.  T.  it  is  always  applied  to 
the  Second  Coming  of  Christ.  His  first  advent  did  not  realize  that 
portion  of  the  Messianic  ideal  which  comprehended  the  thoughts 
of  victory,  kingship,  and  judgement,  and  which  therefore  were 
reserved  for  some  future  advent.  Thus  the  early  Christians  came  to 
live  in  an  attitude  of  mind  similar  to  that  of  devout  Jews  under  the 
prophets'  teaching,  but  with  this  important  difference,  that,  while 
the  old  hope  was  a  vague  expectation  of  God's  manifestation  of 
His  power  or  the  coming  of  some  then  unknown  deliverer,  the 
Christian  hope  was  more  specific,  being  the  anticipation  of  the 
return  of  the  Christ  who  was  already  well  known  by  means  of  his 
life  on  earth. 

as  a  thief  in  the  night.  The  origin  of  this  illustration  is  in 
our  Lord's  teaching  (Matt.  xxiv.  43).  It  is  likely  that  Paul  had 
repeated  the  tradition  of  Christ's  words  to  the  Thessalonians,  so 
that  this  gave  him  reason  for  saying,  'yourselves  know  perfectly.' 
But  the  saying  of  Jesus  about  his  coming  as  a  thief  does  not 
include  the  idea  of  it  being  'in  the  night.'  Cf.  Rev.iii.  3  and  xvi. 
15  ;  2  Pet.  iii.  10,  where  Christ  is  seen  coming  '  as  a  thief,'  but 
again  with  no  mention  of  the  night.     It  would  seem  that  this  was 


I  THESSALONIANS  5.  3  205 

Peace  and  safety,  then  sudden  destruction  cometh  upon 

an  addition  of  the  Apostle's,  perhaps  suggested  by  the  parable 
of  the  Virgins,  if  that,  was  known  to  Paul,  where  we  read,  '  But 
at  midnight  there  is  a  cry,  Behold,  the  bridegroom  ! '  Still  Christ's 
words  about  the  householder  watching  against  the  thief  naturally 
suggest  the  night  as  the  season  of  his  coming.  Possibly  this 
passage  is  the  origin  of  the  church  tradition  that  the  Second 
Advent  is  to  occur  at  night.  Thus  Lactantius  writes,  'Then  the 
middle  of  the  heaven  shall  be  laid  open  in  the  dead  and  darkness 
of  the  night,  that  the  light  of  the  descending  God  may  be  manifest 
in  all  the  world  as  lightning:  of  which  the  Sibyl  spoke  in  these 
words:  "When  He  shall  come,  there  will  be  fire  and  darkness 
in  the  midst  of  the  black  night"'  {Institutes,  vii.  19).  It  is  not 
probable  that  Paul  knew  the  Sibylline  oracle  here  cited,  even  if  it 
had  made  its  appearance  as  early  as  the  date  of  this  Epistle. 
Nevertheless  it  indicates  an  impression  that  the  night  was  to  be 
the  time  of  the  advent.  Later  tradition  fixes  this  at  Easter  Eve. 
But  all  the  Apostle  intends  is  probably  an  emphasizing  of  our 
Lord's  teaching  in  which  he  compares  his  coming  with  that  of 
the  thief  simply  to  shew  that  the  time  will  not  be  known 
beforehand. 

3.  they  are  saying :  people  generally,  in  distinction  from  the 
enlightened  watchers,  though  Schmiedel  holds  that  those  who  are 
not  Christians  are  intended,  since  they  are  referred  to  in  the 
verses  that  follow.  But  they  have  not  yet  been  introduced,  and 
the  phrase  is  indefinite.  Most  people  are  not  expecting  the  day 
of  the  Lord.  This  attitude  of  mind  is  illustrated  by  our  Lord  in 
his  references  to  the  people  of  the  days  of  Noah  (Matt.  xxiv.  38, 
39 ;  Luke  xvii.  26,  27)  and  Lot  (Luke  xvii.  29,  30). 

Peace  and  safety.  Like  the  Jews  of  Ezekiel's  time  who 
cried,  '  Peace '  when,  as  the  prophet  says,  '  there  is  no  peace ' 
(Ezek.  xiii.  10). 

sudden  destruction :  as  in  the  days  of  Noah's  flood  and  the 
destruction  of  the  cities  of  the  plain.  Here  the  coming  of  Christ 
is  associated  with  those  events  which  the  prophets  ascribed  to  '  the 
day  of  the  Lord,'  judgement  and  the  destruction  of  the  enemies  of 
God  and  of  His  people,  e.  g.  4Howl  ye;  for  the  day  of  the  Lord 
is  at  hand  ;  it  shall  come  as  a  destruction  from  the  Almighty ' — 
literally  'the  Mighty  to  destroy'  (Isa.  xiii.  6) ;  cf.  verse  9,  Ezek. 
xxx.  3  ff. ;  Joel  i.  15,  ii.  1,  2,  11,  31  ;  note  especially  Amos  v.  18, 
'  Woe  unto  you  that  desire  the  day  of  the  Lord  !  to  what  end  is 
it  for  you  ?  the  day  of  the  Lord  is  darkness,  and  not  light.'  See 
also  Zeph.  i.  14-17,  ii.  2,  3;  Zech.  xiv ;  Mai.  iii.  2.  The  same  is 
seen  in  our  Lord's  teaching,  e.  g.  Luke  xvii.  22-37  ;  and  repeated 
by  the  apostles,  e.  g.  Peter  (Acts  ii.  20),  Paul  (the  passage  before 
us,  Phil.  i.  10,  &c),  John  (Rev.  xvi.  14). 


2o6  I  THESSALONIANS  5.  4-7 

them,  as  travail  upon  a  woman   with  child ;    and  they 

4  shall  in  no  wise  escape.     But  ye,  brethren,  are  not  in 
darkness,  that  that  day  should  overtake  you  as  a  thief : 

5  for  ye  are  all  sons  of  light,  and  sons  of  the  day  :  we  are 

6  not  of  the  night,  nor  of  darkness ;    so  then  let  us  not 

7  sleep,  as  do  the  rest,  but  let  us  watch  and  be  sober.     For 

4.  darkness.  The  mention  of  '  night '  earlier  suggests  the 
contrast  of  darkness  and  light,  and  thus  introduces  a  new  line  of 
thought.  The  darkness  here  referred  to  is  primarily  ignorance. 
The  sequel  shews  that  moral  depravity  is  also  in  mind,  but  rather 
as  the  behaviour  of  the  children  of  darkness  than  as  that  darkness 
itself.  Though  Christ  will  come  to  the  world  as  a  thief  in  the 
night,  i.  e.  suddenly  and  unexpectedly,  this  will  not  be  the  case 
with  Christians  who  are  taught  to  expect  his  advent.  They  are 
not  in  darkness,  being  enlightened  by  the  revelation  of  the 
mysteries  proclaimed  by  the  apostles.  Cf.  Eph.  iv.  18,  '  darkened 
in  their  understanding.' 

5.  sons  of  light:  a  phrase  found  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus 
(Luke  xvi.  8).  It  is  a  Hebraism;  cf.  'son  of  wickedness'  (Ps. 
lxxxix.  22),  'sons  of  thunder'  (Mark  iii.  17).  The  idiom  is  used 
to  express  an  essential  characteristic.  '  Sons  of  light '  are  people 
characterized  by  their  intimate  relation  to  light.  The  phrase  is 
more  forcible  than  our  expression  '  enlightened  people,'  for  the 
light  is  not  a  mere  accident ;  it  has  become  part  of  the  nature  and 
being.  The  primary  idea  must  be  the  possession  of  knowledge, 
in  contrast  with  the  benighted  state  of  the  heathen  to  whom  the 
day  of  Christ's  coming  will  be  a  terrible  surprise.  The  contrast  is 
further  emphasized  by  the  synonymous  expression  'sons of  day.' 
Since  the  Thessalonians  have  received  the  light  of  Christian  truth 
they  belong  not  to  the  night,  but  to  the  day.  The  moral  and 
spiritual  significance  of  the  contrast  of  light  and  darkness  is 
a  prominent  idea  in  the  Fourth  Gospel,  e.g.  John  i.  5,  iii.  19-21, 
xi.  9,  10,  xii.  35,  36,  where,  while  ignorance  and  moral  depravity 
are  blended  in  the  notion  of  darkness,  light  symbolizes  purity  as 
well  as  knowledge.  Some  such  secondary  signification  appears  to 
be  emerging  here,  since  the  Apostle  turns  directly  to  the  treatment 
of  the  conduct  that  becomes  Christians  as  sons  of  light. 

6.  so  then:  in  the  Greek  a  strong  conclusive  phrase,  very 
characteristic  of  Paul's  style.     It  points  to  a  sure  inference. 

not  sleep.  Sleep  represents  careless  indifference  which 
would  be  startled  by  the  sudden  coming  of  a  thief. 

the  rest :  those  who  are  not  Christians,  especially  heathen 
fellow  citizens  at  Thessalonica.     See  iv.  13. 

watch :  the  first  duty,  as  in  view  of  a  thief's  sudden  coming ; 


I  THESSALONIANS  5.  8  207 

they   that  sleep    sleep  in  the  night ;    and  they  that  be 
drunken  are  drunken  in  the  night.     But  let  us,  since  we  8 
are  of  the  day,  be  sober,  putting  on  the  breastplate  of 
faith  and  love;  and  for  a  helmet,  the  hope  of  salvation. 

a  duty  frequently  insisted  on  by  Christ,  e.  g.  Matt.  xxiv.  42  ; 
Luke  xii.  37,  39.  It  is  also  elsewhere  urged  by  Paul — Acts  xx. 
31;  1  Cor.  xvi.  13;  Col.  iv.  2;  and  it  is  prominent  in  the 
Apocalypse — iii.  2,  3,  xvi.   15. 

"be  sober.  In  Grimm-Thayer  the  Greek  word  is  rendered,  '  to 
be  calm  and  collected  in  spirit.'  It  occurs  again  in  verse  8,  and 
then  only  at  2  Tim.  iv.  5  in  the  Pauline  Epistles.  The  only  other 
N.  T.  instances  of  its  appearance  are  in  1  Peter— viz.  i.  13,  iv.  7, 
v.  8.  It  is  not  enough  to  watch.  The  watcher  must  be  in  a  calm 
and  self-possessed  temper  of  mind  to  be  ready  for  the  great  event. 
In  Christ's  teaching  prayer  is  commonly  associated  with  watching, 
e.  g.  '  Watch  and  pray,  that  ye  enter  not  into  temptation '  (Mark 
xiv.  38'.  The  word  does  not  have  our  modern  specific  sense  of 
the  opposite  to  intemperance  in  strong  drink,  although  that  in- 
temperance is  referred  to  in  the  context. 

7.  Two  ways  of  spending  the  night — in  sleep  and  in  reveln', 
neither  of  which  is  appropriate  to  the  day.  The  non- Christian 
world  may  be  said  to  be  spending  its  time  largely  in  one  or  the 
other  of  these  ways — in  careless  indifference  to  the  coming  judge- 
ment, equivalent  to  sleep  ;  or  if  with  keen  interest  and  excitement, 
only  with  a  passion  for  what  is  base  and  unworthy. 

8.  let  us.  The  pronoun  is  emphatic  in  the  Greek— meaning 
'  us  Christians,'  in  contrast  with  '  the  rest '  just  referred  to 
(verse  6). 

putting1  on,  &c.  :  the  harnessing  of  the  soldier  with  his 
armour  for  fight — a  new  image.  Of  course  there  is  no  reference 
to  the  notion  of  defence  against  the  thief.  The  illustration  of  the 
thief  was  only  introduced  to  suggest  the  alarming  suddenness  of 
the  advent  of  Christ  for  those  not  prepared  to  expect  it.  Now  we 
have  an  instance  of  the  Apostle's  frequent  allusions  to  the  warfare 
of  the  spiritual  life,  introduced  apparently  by  the  sober,  alert 
attitude  of  the  Christian  in  contrast  with  the  careless  slumbers  or 
dissolute  excitement  of  others. 

breastplate:  rather,  'corselet,'  or  'cuirass,'  a  coat  of  mail 
protecting  the  body  from  the  neck  to  the  waist. 

of  faith  and  love :  a  genitive  of  apposition.  Faith  and  love 
constitute  a  breastplate,  protecting  the  heart  from  the  assaults  of 
evil.  In  the  parallel  passage  in  Eph.  vi.  14  the  breastplate  consists 
of  righteousness. 

the  hope  of  salvation.      Salvation  in  the  N.  T.  is  usually 


208  1  THESSALONIANS   5.  9,  10 

9  For  God  appointed  us  not  unto  wrath,  but  unto  the  ob- 
10  taining  of  salvation  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who 

regarded  as  a  future  good,  the  final  deliverance  from  all  evil,  e.g. 
Rom.  xiii.  it.  Here  the  image  is  similar  to  'the  helmet  of 
salvation  '  in  Eph.  vi.  17,  but  more  explicit,  since  it  shews  that  the 
protection  is  to  be  found  in  the  hope  of  future  deliverance.  Such 
a  hope  is  a  safeguard  against  yielding  either  to  despair  or  to  the 
fatal  allurements  that  attack  the  uninterested  soul. 

It  is  difficult  to  carry  the  analysis  further  and  discover  the 
specific  suitability  of  faith  and  love  as  a  breastplate  and  of  the 
hope  of  salvation  as  a  helmet.  Fanciful  analogies  may  be  easily 
suggested  ;  but  probably  the  Apostle  had  none  such  in  mind,  and 
only  intended  to  indicate  that  the  whole  person — especially  the 
two  most  vital  parts,  the  head  and  the  heart — should  be  covered 
with  this  armour  of  the  spiritual  graces.  Observe,  these  are  the 
same  three  graces  that  he  eulogizes  in  writing  to  the  Corinthians 
as  being  permanent  in  contrast  with  the  temporary  gifts  of 
prophecy,  tongues,  and  knowledge  (1  Cor.  xiii.  8),  saying,  '  But 
now  abideth  faith,  hope,  love,  these  three  '  (verse  13).  The  trio  to  be 
thus  permanent  must  consist  of  tough  and  enduring  substance — such 
as  will  be  suitable  for  armour  that  is  to  stand  the  assaults  of  evil. 

9.  appointed:  indicating  the  Divine  end  and  purpose  in  calling 
us  to  be  Christians. 

wrath :  the  destiny  of  abandoned  souls,  designated  elsewhere 
'  children  of  wrath  '  (Eph.  ii.  3)  ;  cf.  Rom.  i.  18,  ii.  5,  8,  iii.  5,  v.  9  ; 
and  especially,  'What  if  God,  willing  to  shew  his  wrath,  and  to 
make  his  power  known,  endured  with  much  longsuffering  vessels 
of  wrath  fitted  unto  destruction '  (Rom.  ix.  22),  where  a  certain 
Divine  destiny  of  some  people  to  come  under  the  wrath  of  God  in 
future  times  is  indicated,  although  the  Apostle  is  careful  to  shew 
that  this  is  not  independent  of  character,  saying, '  by  their  unbelief 
they  were  broken  off'  (Rom.  xi.  20),  so  that  it  was  *  towards  them 
that  fell'  that  he  shewed  'severity'  (verse  22). 

obtaining'  of  salvation  :  as  a  future  possession.  Elsewhere 
the  word  rendered  'obtaining'  sometimes  means  '  possession,'  e.  g. 
Eph.  i.  14  ;  Heb.  x.  39  ;  1  Pet.  ii.  9.  But  here  it  plainly  points  to 
a  future  acquisition,  since  it  balances  the  'wrath'  which  belongs 
to  the  future.  It  has  the  same  meaning  in  2  Thess.  ii.  14,  where 
R.  V.  follows  A.  V.  in  rendering  it  'obtaining' ;  and,  as  there  the 
object  is  the  '  glory  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ' a  share  in  which 
undoubtedly  belongs  to  the  future,  it  is  impossible  to  read  '  pos- 
session,' as  though  a  present  state  were  intended. 

through :  pointing  to  the  means  or  the  agent.  The  primary 
source  of  salvation  will  be  God,  who  effects  His  redeeming  purpose 
by  means  of  the  action  of  Jesus  Christ. 


I  THESSALONIANS  5.  10  209 

died  for  us,  that,  whether  we  wake  or  sleep,  we  should 

10.  died:  not  simply  'was  killed.'     The  voluntary  element  in 
our  Lord's  death  is  here  indicated. 

for  us.  The  preposition  l  rendered  '  for '  signifies  '  on  behalf 
of,'  'for  the  benefit  of.'  Thus  it  occurs  with  reference  to 
intercessory  prayer  in  the  phrases  '  pray  for  them  '  (Matt.  v.  44), 
1  pray  ye  for  me'  (Acts  viii.  24"),  '  praying  always  for  you '  (Col. 
i.  3),  '  pray  one  for  another'  (Jas.  v.  16)  ;  cf.  Rom.  x.  1 ;  2  Cor. 
i.  11,  ix.  14;  Eph.  vi.  19;  Phil.  i.  4.  But  here  what  is  said 
elsewhere  of  intercessory  prayer  is  affirmed  of  the  death  of  Christ, 
which  is  stated  to  be  on  our  behalf  or  for  our  benefit.  This  is 
chronologically  the  first  statement  of  the  great  truth  in  the  N.  T., 
occurring  as  it  does  in  the  earliest  of  Paul's  epistles,  and,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  the  Epistle  of  James,  which  does  not  contain 
the  idea,  the  earliest  written  book  of  the  N.  T.  It  has  been 
described  as  an  essentially  Pauline  thought,  originating  in  the 
mind  of  the  great  Apostle.  The  speeches  ascribed  to  Peter  and 
Stephen  in  'Acts'  do  not  contain  it.  But  it  is  found  in  our  Lord's 
teaching  (Matt.  xx.  28,  xxvi.  28),  and  therefore  must  be  ascribed 
to  the  original  gospel  of  the  Founder  of  Christianity,  whence  Paul 
may  have  received  it.  Still  the  idea  is  much  more  prominent  in 
the  preaching  and  writing  of  the  Apostle  after  the  death  of  Jesus 
had  been  witnessed  than  it  was  in  the  utterances  of  his  master 
before  that  event.  Paul  made  the  crucifixion  central  in  his 
preaching  (see  1  Cor.  ii.  2).  That  was  inevitable  when  once  he 
had  come  to  see  the  purpose  of  it.  Directly  it  is  perceived  that 
death  was  voluntarily  accepted  by  Jesus  Christ  for  our  benefit,  that 
event  becomes  of  supreme  interest  to  our  thoughts  of  what  he  was 
and  what  he  did,  for  it  must  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  thing 
that  he  did,  self-devotion  for  others  reaching  its  utmost  possible 
limit.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  Paul  here  simply  states 
the  supreme  fact  without  adding  any  details  to  specify  the  way  in 
which  the  death  of  Christ  comes  to  be  for  our  benefit.  His  present 
object  is  not  to  elucidate  what  we  call  '  the  doctrine  of  the 
atonement ' ;  it  is  not  theological  and  theoretical.  It  is  wholly 
practical,  viz.  to  urge  this  truth  as  a  motive  for  our  complete 
consecration  to  one  who  has  made  the  greatest  possible  sacrifice 
on  our  behalf.  Lastly,  observe  that  in  using  the  first  person  plural 
Paul  associates  himself  with  his  converts.  In  this  amazing  relation 
to  Christ — the  obligation  of  devotion  springing  from  the  fact  that 
he  has  given  his  life  for  both  parties — the  differences  between  an 
apostle  and  his  disciples  sink  into  insignificance. 

that :  pointing  to  purpose.     The  object  of  Christ's  sacrifice  of 


(9) 


210  I   THESSALONIANS  5.  11,12 

11  live  together  with  him.     Wherefore  exhort  one  another, 
and  build  each  other  up,  even  as  also  ye  do. 

12  But   we   beseech   you,  brethren,  to  know  them  that 

himself  was  that  his  people  might  be  brought  into  close  union  with 
himself. 

wake:  lit.  'watch/  the  word  so  rendered  in  verse  6. 

sleep.  The  verb  is  in  the  present  tense,  signifying  sleeping 
as  a  continuous  condition.  It  is  not  the  same  word  as  that 
rendered  sleep  in  iv.  15  *,  which  is  a  transitive  verb  meaning 
'  to  put  to  sleep,'  while  here  the  verb  is  intransitive,  signify- 
ing 'to  be  asleep.'  The  meaning  is  the  Christian  sleep  of  death. 
Whether  living  and  performing  our  duty  of  watching  while  we 
live,  or  sleeping  in  death,  we  are  to  live  with  Him. 

live  :  a  strong  word  indicating  the  vitality  of  Christian  being. 
Even  when  we  sleep  in  the  state  commonly  reckoned  death,  if  we 
are  in  the  relation  to  Christ  here  indicated  we  are  alive  as  really 
as  when  we  are  'awake'  and  'watching'  on  earth.  Cf.  'Whoso- 
ever liveth  and  believeth  on  me  shall  never  die '  (John  xi.  26). 

tog-ether.  This  word  must  be  connected  with  what  precedes, 
not  with  what  follows.  It  indicates  the  union  of  Christians,  both 
those  now  living  and  those  who  have  died.  Thus  it  points  to  the 
consolation  of  the  Thessalonians  in  their  grief  over  the  loss  of 
some  of  their  number.  They  are  not  to  sorrow  as  those  who  have 
no  hope.  The  chief  hope  is  that  the  deceased  Christians  shall  not 
miss  the  great  joy  of  welcoming  Christ  on  his  return  and  then 
entering  on  the  resurrection  life  of  eternity.  But  the  more 
human  hope  of  reunion  may  also  be  cherished,  since  both  the  dead 
and  the  living  will  be  together  in  that  happy  future. 

11.  exhort.  A. V.  had  'comfort.'  Perhaps  here  a  better 
meaning  than  either  would  be  'encourage,' the  Greek  admitting 
of  all  three  significations.  The  principal  aim  of  the  whole  Epistle 
is  to  cheer  the  Thessalonians  in  their  distress  and  despondency 
concerning  departed  friends. 

one  another.  The  encouragement  was  to  be  mutual  in 
accordance  with  the  simple  order  of  the  most  primitive  times, 
which  allowed  free  scope  to  the  members  of  a  church  to  address 
the  brotherhood,  as  we  see  clearly  from  the  case  of  the  church  at 
Corinth  (see  1  Cor.  xiv.  31). 

build  .  .  .  up  :  see  note  on  iii.  2. 

v.  12-22.  Practical  exhortations.  The  leaders  of  the  church 
are  to  be  honoured  and  the  brethren  to  live  peaceable  together, 
admonishing  and  encouraging  one  another  according  to  their 
several  characters  and  requirements.     There  is  to  be  no  revenge. 

1   Here  we  have  /cadevSafiev  ■  in  iv.  15  the  word  was  KoifirjOevTas. 


I  THESSALONIANS  5.  13  211 

labour  among  you,  and  are  over  you  in  the  Lord,  and 
admonish  you ;  and  to  esteem  them  exceeding  highly  in  13 

Life  is  to  be  glad,  prayerful,  grateful.  The  spiritual  gifts  of  the 
various  members  of  the  community  are  not  to  be  checked,  but  are 
to  be  tested,  the  good  held  fast,  the  bad  of  all  kinds  rejected. 

12.  But:  or  'now,'  indicating  a  transition  to  a  new  subject. 
See  note  on  iv.  9. 

know:  an  unusual  use  of  this  word,  apparently  meaning 
'recognize,'  'acknowledge' ;  cf.  'acknowledge  [a  different  Greek 
word]  ye  therefore  them  that  are  such'  (1  Cor.  xvi.  18),  also 
'  Lord,  what  is  man,  that  thou  takest  knowledge  of  him  ? '  (Ps. 
cxliv.  3). 

labour:  a  stronger  word  than  'work,'  meaning  ' toil,*  'work 
to  weariness. ' 

are  over  you :  indicating  official  status  in  the  church.  No 
titles  of  church  officers  appear  in  either  of  the  epistles  to  the 
Thessalonians  ;  nor  is  there  any  distinct  reference  to  such  officers 
in  the  four  epistles  of  the  succeeding  group — Galatians,  Romans, 
1  and  2  Corinthians.  The  first  such  reference  is  in  Phil.  i.  1  : 
'bishops  and  deacons.'  Still  the  Apostle's  language  here  plainly 
points  to  office  ;  but  we  cannot  be  sure  that  there  was  as  yet  any 
definite  organization  of  the  very  young  church  at  Thessalonica. 
In  describing  the  Lord's  Supper  as  observed  in  his  day  Justin 
Martyr  uses  the  same  indefinite  word  that  we  have  here  in  order 
to  indicate  the  president  (1  Apol.  65).  But  he  has  it  in  the 
singular;  in  this  passage  the  form  is  plural,  indicating  several 
persons  in  a  position  of  leadership,  like  the  elders  in  a  Jews' 
synagogue. 

in  the  Lord :  in  regard  to  Christianity,  as  distinguished  from 
civil  magistrates  or  business  employers. 

admonish :  lit.  *  put  you  in  mind.'  Practical  teaching  is 
intended.  The  three  expressions  'labour  among  you,'  'are  over 
3'ou,'  and  '  admonish  you '  are  not  ascribed  to  three  separate  orders 
of  the  ministry.  The  presence  of  but  one  article  before  all  these 
expressions  shews  that  only  one  class  of  persons  is  intended. 
The  same  leaders  of  the  church  perform  all  three  functions ;  or 
better,  these  are  not  three  formally  distinct  functions,  but  merel}' 
three  aspects  of  the  relation  of  the  leaders  to  the  members  of  the 
church. 

13.  to  esteem  them  exceeding'  highly  in  love.  Two 
renderings  of  this  phrase  have  been  suggested  :  (1)  to  connect 
'  exceeding  highly '  with  '  esteem,'  and  to  regard  the  last  two 
words,  '  in  love,'  as  supplementary,  with  this  meaning — 'To  have 
a  very  high  opinion  of  them  and  to  cherish  that  in  a  spirit  of  love.' 
(2)  To  connect  the  words  'in  love'  with  'esteem,'  taking  the 

P    2 


212  I  THESSALONIANS  5.  14 

love  for  their  work's  sake.     Be  at  peace  among  your- 

14  selves.     And   we   exhort   you,    brethren,   admonish  the 

disorderly,  encourage  the  fainthearted,  support  the  weak, 

intermediate  clause  as  an  intensifying  of  the  idea  this  gives,  thus — 
'To  esteem  them  with  love,  and  that  exceeding  highly.'  This 
second  meaning  is  preferable,  because  (a)  the  Greek  word  {liegeo- 
mai)  rendered  '  esteem '  does  not  contain  the  idea  of  respect  and 
honour  that  we  attach  to  the  English  word,  but  only  means 
'reckon,'  'consider,'  and  (b)  also  because  the  phrase  rendered 
'exceeding  highly'  only  means  'very  much  indeed,'  without 
the  specific  idea  of  elevation  in  honour.  Therefore  something 
more  specific  is  needed  to  complete  the  thought.  We  have  this 
if  the  conception  of  Christian  love  is  made  central  to  the  whole 
sentence.  Then  it  means  that  the  church  is  to  regard  its  leaders 
with  very  warm  affection.  It  is  not  high  dignity,  but  great  love 
that  the  Apostle  wishes  to  be  given  to  them.  In  the  next  century 
we  find  Ignatius  urging  on  the  churches  to  which  he  writes  the 
duty  of  honouring  their  ministers  ;  and  with  him  it  is  the  elevation 
of  their  authority,  rather  than  the  rousing  of  affection  for  them, 
that  is  most  earnestly  enforced.  Thus  he  says,  '  It  is  therefore 
necessary,  even  as  your  wont  is,  that  ye  should  do  nothing  with- 
out the  bishop  ;  but  be  ye  obedient  also  to  the  presbytery,  as  to 
the  apostles  of  Jesus  Christ  our  hope  ;  for  if  we  live  in  him,  we 
shall  also  be  found  in  him'  (Epist.  to  Trallians,  2,  ;  and  again,  '  Do 
ye  all  follow  your  bishop,  as  Jesus  Christ  followed  the  Father, 
and  the  presbytery  as  the  apostles ;  and  to  the  deacons  pay 
respect,  as  to  God's  commandment'  (Ept'st.  to  Sniyrnceans,  8 > 
Thus  Ignatius  magnifies  the  authority  of  the  ministry,  while  Paul 
only  desiderates  very  much  love  for  the  ministers. 

for  their  work's  sake :  //'/.   '  because  of  their  work.'     It  i 
their  work,  not  merely  their  office,  that  is  to  elicit  the  affection  of 
the  church  for  them.     They  should  be  loved  for  what  they  are 
doing,  since  that  is  for  the  benefit  of  the  church.    The  love  should 
spring  from  gratitude  for  the  services  they  are  rendering. 

Be  at  peace,  &c.  :  the  duty  of  the  ordinary  members  one  to 
another,  following  the  special  duty  of  love  to  the  leaders. 

14.  admonish. :  the  same  word  that  had  described  the  work  of 
the  leaders  in  verse  12.  Therefore  the  duty  of  admonishing  is 
not  confined  to  those  men,  though  they  are  especially  entrusted 
with  it.  As  yet  the  church  order  is  so  fluid,  and  the  rights  and 
duties  of  the  private  members  are  so  extensive,  that  no  official 
admonition  dispenses  with  the  mutual  counsel  of  the  members 
among  themselves. 

the  disorderly :    strictly,    '  those  who  do   not   keep  to  the 
ranks/   with    reference  to   military  discipline.     Plato   uses   it   of 


I   THESSALONIANS  5.  15  213 

be  longsuffering  toward  all.     See  that  none  render  unto  15 
any  one  evil  for  evil ;  but  alway  follow  after  that  which 

intemperance  in  pleasures.  Ellicott  suggests  that,  '  Here  the 
precise  reference  is  probably  to  the  neglect  of  duties  and  callings 
into  which  the  Thessalonians  had  lapsed  owing  to  mistaken  views 
of  the  time  of  the  Lord's  coming.'  This  view  is  borne  out  by 
such  passages  as  iv.  10,  n  ;  a  Thess.  Hi.  6,  and  especially  verse 
11:  'for  we  hear  of  some  that  walk  among  you  disorderly  [a  form 
of  the  same  Greek  word],  that  work  not  at  all,  but  are  busy- 
bodies,'  where  the  disorderliness  is  associated  with  idleness. 
These  people  are  Christ's  soldiers  who  fall  out  of  the  ranks  instead 
of  following  the  call  of  dut3\ 

the  fainthearted:  the  opposite  class  of  people  to  the  dis- 
orderly enthusiasts,  people  who  are  discouraged,  perhaps  espe- 
cially those  who  have  lost  friends  by  death  and  are  despondent  on 
that  account,  since  this  ground  of  despondency  has  been  noted  as 
conspicuous  in  the  church  (see  i  Thess.  iv.  13). 

the  weak:  weak  in  the  spiritual  life,  especially  before  per- 
secution, rather  than  the  weak  in  faith  of  Romans  xv.  1,  who  are 
over-scrupulous  because  too  timorous  to  use  Christian  liberty. 

15.  See  that,  &c.  :  surely  not  meaning  that  the  church  as 
a  whole  is  to  exercise  discipline  over  its  individual  members  in 
restraining  outbreaks  of  the  spirit  of  revenge,  but  rather  urging 
each  member  to  see  to  it  that  for  his  part  he  does  not  manifest 
that  unchristian  temper. 

evil  for  evil.  The  prohibition  of  private  revenge  is  an 
especially  Christian  duty  required  by  our  Lord  in  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  with  a  distinct  recognition  of  its  repudiation  of  the  old 
Jewish  lex  talionis,  "'an  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth' 
(Matt.  v.  38,  39).  The  more  general  duty  of  love  to  one's  enemy 
had  been  recognized  in  Prov.  xxv.  21.  This  passage  is  quoted  by 
Paul  (Rom.  xii.  20)  after  he  has  given  the  advice  to  the  Romans 
which  he  here  gives  the  Thessalonians,  and  in  almost  identical 
words,  'Render  to  no  man  evil  for  evil'  (Rom.  xii.  17).  It  is 
plain  that  the  precept  has  no  direct  reference  to  the  duty  of  the 
magistrate  in  dealing  with  offenders  against  the  law.  Under 
the  Roman  government  none  of  Paul's  converts  could  be  in 
the  position  of  responsible  administrators  of  justice.  Besides,  the 
words  ■  See  that  none,'  &c,  point  to  the  action  of  private  persons, 
not  to  that  of  officials  in  the  discharge  of  their  public  functions. 

that  which  is  good:  'the  good,'  an  expression  often  met 
with  in  Plato  and  discussed  in  the  Dialogues.  Here  it  is  not 
taken  in  an  abstract  sense,  but  with  reference  to  the  benefits  that 
one  member  of  the  church  is  to  confer  on  another.  Thus  it  is  the 
opposite  to  ,the  •  evil  for  evil '  just  forbidden.     In  this  connexion 


214  I    THESSALONIANS  5.   16-18 

16  is  good,  one  toward  another,  and  toward  all.     Rejoice 
17,  iS  alway  ;  pray  without  ceasing  ;  in  everything  give  thanks : 

to  follow  after  the  good  for  the  benefit  of  one  another  must  mean 
to  make  the  welfare  of  our  fellow  Christians  a  definite  aim  and 
pursuit,  to  seek  and  labour  for  this  end. 

16.  Cf.  Phil.  iii.  i,  iv.  4.  This  is  (1)  essentially  Christian,  since 
Christianity  is  based  on  glad  tidings  ;  (2)  characteristically  Paul- 
ine, the  Apostle  being  deeply  emotional  and  himself  finding  joy 
in  his  work  (e.g.  Phil.  iv.  1);  and  (3)  specifically  appropriate,  inas- 
much as  the  Thessalonians  were  sorrowing  beyond  necessity  (cf. 
verse  13).  The  remarkable  part  of  the  advice  lies  in  the  adverb 
'alway.'  Paul  is  no  blind  optimist ;  but  he  would  point  to  peren- 
nial springs  of  joy  beneath  passing  sorrows.  Thus  he  writes  'as 
sorrowful,  yet  alway  rejoicing'  (2  Cor.  vi.  io\  The  explanation 
of  this  paradox  is  to  be  found  in  Rom.  viii.  18  ;  and  especially  in 
2  Cor.  iv.  t6-i8. 

17.  pray:  a  word  used  for  worship  generally,  and  not  only  for 
petition. 

without  ceasing".  Cf.  Luke  xviii.  i  ff.,  a  passage  which 
suggests  perseverance  in  prayer  rather  than  the  habit  of  incessant 
prayer.  The  Christian  is  to  persevere  like  the  widow  who  con- 
tinued appealing  to  the  unrighteous  judge  till  he  attended  to  her 
case.  If  he  does  not  at  once  obtain  an  answer  to  his  prayer  he 
is  not  to  abandon  the  quest  in  despair,  nor  to  cease  praying. 
But  both  the  precept  that  precedes  and  that  which  follows  point- 
ing to  a  continuous  habit,  it  is  better  to  read  the  words  of  the 
Apostle  in  a  more  general  sense.  Thus  they  recommend  a  life  of 
prayer,  as  one  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of  worship.  It  is  quite 
plain  that  he  is  not  advising  the  neglect  of  daily  duty  for  the  sake 
of  a  'religious  life'  given  up  entirely  to  prayer  in  the  cloister. 
Such  a  vocation  was  not  thought  of  in  the  primitive  church, 
though  the  habit  of  Anna  the  prophetess  had  approached  it 
(Luke  ii.  37).  In  this  Epistle  Paul  emphatically  commends  his 
readers  to  carry  on  their  business  duties,  working  with  their 
hands  (iv.  11).  The  spirit  of  his  advice  may  be  realized  in 
accordance  with  Coleridge's  lines : — 

,  He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 
All  things  both  great  and  small ; 
For  the  dear  God  who  loveth  us, 
He  made  and  loveth  all.' 

Still  the  prayer  must  be  a  reality,  the  actual  lifting  up  of  the 
heart  and  life  to  God  in  worship.  This  is  to  be  a  habit.  Cf. 
'  Whether  therefore  ye  eat,  or  drink,  or  whatsoever  ye  do,  do  all 
to  the  glory  of  God '  (1  Cor.  x.  31). 

18.  in  everything.     Schmiedel  understands  this  to  mean  'in 


I  THESSALONIANS  5.  19,20  215 

for  this  is  the  will  of  Clod  in  Christ  Jesus  to  you-ward. 
Quench    not    the    Spirit ;    despise    not    prophesyings ;  19, 20 

all  places,'  or  'under  all  circumstances';  but  Ellicott  calls  atten- 
tion to  2  Cor.  ix.  8,  where  the  same  Greek  words  mean  'with 
regard  to  everything.'  (Cf.  2  Cor.  ix.  11,  with  the  same  meaning.) 
Probably  therefore  this  is  the  idea  here. 

tliis,  &c.  It  is  a  question  whether  Paul  here  intends  to  refer 
to  the  three  foregoing  precepts,  or  only  to  the  last  of  them.  It  is 
more  in  accordance  with  his  habit  to  connect  the  sentence  simply 
with  the  last  precept.  Besides,  the  singular  'this,'  not  'these 
things,'  also  points  to  the  same  conclusion.  Thus  great  emphasis 
is  laid  on  the  duty  of  thankfulness.  This  is  especially  what  God 
wills  to  see  in  His  children. 

the  will  of  God:  the  thing  that  God  wills  to  be  done  by 
men. 

in  Christ  Jesus:  God's  will  with  regard  to  His  people 
being  manifested  in  the  life,  work,  and  teaching  of  Christ,  and 
thus  coming  in  Christ. 

to  you-ward:  so  R.  V.  '  Concerning  you '  in  A.  V.  is  not  so 
accurate,  as  the  preposition  points  to  an  end  or  object.  God's  will 
has  come  to  Christians  by  means  of  Christ  Jesus. 

19.  Quench:  a  word  based  on  the  idea  of  the  Spirit  regarded 
under  the  image  of  fire.  Thus  John  the  Baptist  says  of  Christ, 
'he  shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  fire'  (Matt, 
iii.  n>,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  comes  at  Pentecost  as  tongues  of  fire 
(Acts  ii.  3).  To  smother  and  suppress  the  working  of  the  Spirit 
is  to  quench  the  fire. 

the  Spirit.  R.  V.  uses  a  capital  i  S,'  indicating  the  Spirit  of 
God  ;  A.  V.  has  a  small  's,'  meaning  our  own  spirit.  It  is  nearly 
certain  that  R.V.  is  right  here,  for  two  reasons:  (1)  Paul  is 
accustomed  to  name  the  Divine  Spirit  in  this  absolute  way,  while 
he  generally  defines  the  human  spirit  in  contra-distinction  as  '  our 
spirit,'  or  with  the  use  of  some  similar  limitation,  e.g.  'The  Spirit 
beareth  witness  with  our  spirit'  (Rom.  viii.  16).  When  'the 
spirit'  is  mentioned  in  contrast  with  'the  flesh'  (e.g.  Rom.  viii.  4) 
no  doubt  the  human  spirit  is  intended.  But  when  the  expression 
stands  by  itself  it  indicates  the  Spirit  par  excellence,  i.e.  the  Holy 
Spirit.  (2)  In  the  next  verse  the  Apostle  goes  on  to  one  of  the 
chief  manifestations  of  the  Spirit  of  God  in  the  church;  and  the 
two  verses  are  evidently  almost  parallel.  Therefore  he  means 
here,  '  Do  not  suppress  and  stifle  the  working  of  the  Spirit  of  God.' 
The  application  is  left  open  to  be  as  widely  comprehensive  as 
possible.  The  Spirit  is  not  to  be  quenched  either  in  one's  self  or 
in  others  ;  either  by  self-suppression  or  by  hindering  the  working 
and  manifestation  of  the  Divine  Spirit  in  others.     The  sentence 


216  I   THESSALONIANS   5.  21,22 

2i,  22  prove  all  things;  hold  fast  that  which  is  good;  abstain 
from  every  form  of  evil. 

■which  follows  shews  that  the  Apostle  is  referring  to  those  various 
manifestations  of  the  indwelling  power  of  the  Spirit  in  the  early 
churches  that  were  seen  in  miracles,  tongues,  prophesyings, 
&c,  a  full  discussion  of  which  is  preserved  in  i  Cor.  xii.  and  xiv. 
The  enthusiasm  of  primitive  Christianity  sometimes  took  on  extra- 
ordinary forms.  The  Apostle  warns  the  people  of  cooler  tempera- 
ment not  to  damp  it  in  others,  as  perhaps  they  are  inclined  to 
do,  and  also  those  who  feel  ashamed  of  it  in  themselves  not  to 
suppress  it. 

20.  prophesyings :  inspired  utterances,  not  necessarily  pre- 
dictions. Paul  puts  these  first  in  the  order  of  spiritual  gifts  when 
he  says,  '  desire  earnestly  spiritual  gifts,  but  rather  that  ye  may 
prophesy'  (i  Cor.  xiv.  i).  Possibly  some  such  utterances  struck 
men  of  common  sense  as  not  very  profound  or  important.  There 
was  danger  lest  they  should  be  treated  with  contempt.  That 
would  be  quenching  the  Spirit. 

21.  prove  all  things  :  with  reference  to  what  precedes.  What- 
ever  prophesyings  are  uttered  in  the  church  are  to  be  tested  or 
proved  before  being  accepted.  On  the  one  hand,  the  utterances 
are  not  to  be  discouraged  ;  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  not  to  be 
accepted  with  implicit  faith,  as  certainly  inspired  and  infallibly 
true.  The  words  have  no  direct  reference  to  the  wider  range  of 
thought  and  the  question  of  proving  all  possible  propositions. 

hold  fast,  &c.  :  as  a  result  of  the  test.  The  prophetic 
utterances  are  to  be  tried  and  sifted.  Those  proved  to  be  good  are 
to  be  accepted  and  retained.  The  Greek  word  rendered  '  hold 
fast '  is  very  strong,  signifying  decisive  and  firm  action. 

good :  in  Greek,  to  kalon,  the  fair  and  excellent,  not  merely 
what  is  morally  good.  The  utterances  that  stand  examination  and 
are  proved  to  be  worthy  of  belief  and  attention  are  to  be  welcomed 
and  retained. 

22.  form:  not  'appearance'  as  in  the  A.  V.  The  Greek  word 
admits  of  both  meanings.  It  occurs  at  Luke  iii.  22,  'in  a  bodily 
form,  as  a  dove,'  where  the  idea  is  the  appearance  of  a  dove,  and 
Luke  ix.  29,  '  the  fashion  of  his  countenance,'  where  again  the 
idea  of  appearance  is  meant.  The  meaning  is  similar  in  2  Cor. 
v.  7,  'We  walk  by  faith,  not  by  sight,'  where  the  Revisers' 
margin  has  'appearance.'  Cf.  John  v.  37.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  word  is  used  in  Greek  philosophy  for  'species.'  And  a  phrase 
similar  to  that  of  Paul  here  occurs  in  Josephus,  Antiq.  x.  3.  1, 
plainly  meaning  '  every  kind  of  evil.'  Moreover,  the  context 
suggests  that  meaning  in  the  present  case.  The  antithesis  to 
holding  fast  the  good  is  rejecting  the  evil,  not  merely  its  appear- 


I   THESSALONIANS  5.  23  217 

And  the  God  of  peace  himself  sanctify  you  wholly  ;  23 
and  may  your  spirit  and  soul  and  body    be   preserved 

ance.     Reality  is  thought  of  in  the  first  clause  ;    reality  will  be 
intended  in  the  second. 

v.  23-28.  Conclusion.  Paul  commends  the  entire  sanctification 
of  his  readers  to  the  faithfulness  of  God,  asks  for  their  prayers, 
sends  a  salutation  to  all  the  brethren,  commands  the  Epistle  to  be 
read  to  them  all,  and  ends  with  a  benediction. 

23.  the  God  of  peace  :  a  Hebraism,  meaning  God  as  connected 
with  peace.  He  dwells  in  peace,  and  He  gives  peace.  The 
thought  of  peace  does  not  suggest  the  notion  of  any  discord 
among  the  Thessalonians,  since  it  is  usual  in  oriental  salutations  ; 
still,  see  verse  13.  But  with  Paul  the  word  has  the  deeper 
Christian  meaning  of  the  interior  restfulness  which  is  the 
experience  of  God's  people.  Peace  is  wished  for  the  Thessa- 
lonians in  the  opening  salutation  (i.   i). 

himself.  The  word  is  very  emphatic  in  the  Greek.  It  is 
God,  He  and  He  only,  who  can  sanctify. 

sanctify:  consecrate  and  purify.  Following  the  description 
of  the  Sanctifier  as  '  the  God  of  peace '  this  suggests  that  peace 
is  to  be  obtained  through  sanctification. 

wholly :  a  word  found  nowhere  else  in  the  N.  T.,  but  frequent 
in  later  Greek.  It  means  '  wholly  attaining  the  end/  i.  e.  complete 
in  all  respects.  The  Thessalonians  are  already  consecrated  in 
some  degree ;  the  Apostle  desires  that  this  may  be  complete. 

your  spirit  and  soul  and  "body:  the  threefold  division  of 
human  nature  adopted  by  Paul.  It  is  not  found  in  the  sayings 
of  Christ,  who  uses  the  twofold  division  more  familiar  to  us — 
body  and  soul.  Paul's  trichotomy  has  been  traced  through  Philo 
to  Plato.  But  the  Platonic  division  of  human  nature,  though 
threefold,  is  not  the  same  as  the  Pauline.  With  Plato  the  highest 
of  the  three  parts  of  man  is  intellect  (nous),  and  Plato  is  followed 
by  Philo.  The  idea  of  'spirit,'  as  we  meet  with  it  in  the 
Scriptures,  is  Hebraic,  not  Hellenic.  Paul  uses  the  word  to 
denote  man's  highest  nature  in  its  religious  perceptions  and 
activities,  and  its  relations  with  the  Spirit  of  God.  Then  the  soul 
stands  for  the  animal  nature  with  its  appetites  and  propensities, 
and  the  lower  life  generally.  In  i  Cor.  ii.  and  iii.  Paul  discusses 
the  distinction  between  the  operations  of  soul  and  spirit,  the 
'natural  man'  there  representing  the  soul,  or  lower  nature. 
Plainly  this  does  not  exclude  a  certain  intelligence,  but  that 
is  '  carnal,'  i.  e.  sensuous  and  worldly,  and  therefore  unable  to 
appreciate  the  spiritual,  i.  e.  that  which  moves  in  the  higher  plane 
when  the  Spirit  of  God  touches  the  life  and  consciousness  of  man. 
But  while  with  Paul  there  is  thus  a  certain  opposition  between 


218  I    THESSALONIANS   5.  24,25 

entire,  without  blame  at  the  coming  of  our  Lord  Jesus 

24  Christ.     Faithful  is  he  that  calleth  you,  who  will   also 
do  it. 

25  Brethren,  pray  for  us. 

spirit  and  soul,  the  vital  antagonism  is  between  spirit  and  flesh 
(see  1  Cor.  v.  5).  The  soul  is  too  much  the  slave  of  the  flesh,  and 
is  in  danger  of  being  quite  degraded  and  ruined  by  the  flesh, 
unless  rescued  and  uplifted  by  the  spirit.  The  idea  of  the 
sanctification  of  all  three  parts  of  the  nature  is  significant  as 
regards  both  extremes:  (i)  In  regard  to  the  spirit.  The  spirit 
needs  it.  Thus  Paul  writes,  '  Let  us  cleanse  ourselves  from  all 
defilement  of  flesh  and  spirit,  perfecting  holiness  in  the  fear 
of  God'  (2  Cor.  vii.  1).  (2)  In  regard  to  the  body.  This  is 
capable  of  sanctification.  Accordingly  Paul  desires  the  body  to 
be  presented  to  God  as  a  living  sacrifice  (Rom.  xii.  1),  and  de- 
scribes it  as  'a  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost'  (i  Cor.  vi.  19). 

entire:  lit.  ' entire  in  all  its  parts.'  It  occurs  in  one  other 
place  in  the  N.  T.,  where  we  read,  '  that  ye  may  be  perfect  and 
entire,  lacking  in  nothing'  (Jas.  i.  4\  It  is  used  in  the  LXX 
for  stones  untouched  by  a  tool  (Deut.  xxvii.  6).  Philo  uses 
it  for  a  body  without  blemish  or  defect  (de  Vict.    12). 

24.  Faithful:  i.  e.  to  the  promise  involved  in  calling.     If  God 
gives  an  invitation,  He  will  grant  that  to  which  He  invites. 

lie  that  calleth :  God.  This  expression  might  seem  to 
impty  either  (1)  that  each  Christian  was  being  continually  called, 
or  (2)  that  God  was  calling  a  succession  of  new  converts  into  the 
church.  The  first  meaning  would  be  unsuitable,  as  Paul  always 
regards  the  call  of  Christians  as  an  act  previous  to  their  becoming 
such  ;  the  second  is  a  possible  meaning,  though  even  this  meaning 
would  only  be  appropriate  if  the  Apostle  were  addressing  a  series 
of  new  converts  in  the  act  of  entering  the  church,  and  it  would  be 
more  suitable  for  those  who  had  not  yet  entered.  Probably  there- 
fore there  is  no  thought  of  time  in  the  passage,  the  expression 
simply  meaning  'your  Caller'  (so  Ellicott). 

who  will  also  do  it :  i.  e.  what  is  necessary  to  be  done  ; 
equivalent  to,  '  who  will  act  and  produce  the  results.'  There 
is  no  object  to  the  verb.  The  idea  of  what  is  to  be  done  is 
not  expressed.  But  the  call  and  the  faithfulness  imply  that 
God  will  do  for  His  people  that  to  which  He  invites  them.  The 
phrase  is  too  comprehensive  to  be  limited  to  what  precedes  in 
verse  23.  Still  it  must  include  those  two  things — the  sanctifying 
and  the  preserving. 

25.  pray  for  us:    ///.    'pray  about1  us';    make  us  a  subject 

1  n(pi,  'about,'    'concerning';     not   vnep,  'on   behalf   of.'      But 


I  TIIESSALONIANS  5.  26,27  219 

Salute    all    the   brethren  with  a  holy  kiss.     I  adjure  26, 27 

of  your  prayers.  The  Apostle  highly  valued  the  prayers  of 
his  friends;  cf.  2  Thess.  iii.  1;  Eph.  vi.  18;  Col.  iv.  3.  It  is  to 
be  observed  that  these  requests  for  prayer  are  all  found  in  the 
earlier  and  later  Epistles,  written  at  leisure  and  calmly  ;  none 
of  them  in  the  four  strenuous  Epistles  of  the  period  of  conflict 
(Gal.,  Rom.,  1  and  2  Cor.). 

26.  It  would  seem  that  verses  26,  27  were  especially  addressed 
to  the  leaders  of  the  church.  The  charge  to  have  the  Epistle  read 
to  all  the  brethren  implies  that  it  would  first  go  to  some  people 
who  might  otherwise  not  make  it  known  to  the  others.  Then 
it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  salutation  differs  in  form  from  that 
in  other  places  where  the  members  of  the  church  are  exhorted 
to  salute  one  another,  e.  g.  '  salute  one  another  with  a  holy  kiss ' 
(Rom.  xvi.  16;  cf.  1  Cor.  xvi.  20;  2  Cor.  xiii.  12;  1  Pet.  v.  14^. 
Here  the  phrase  is  Salute  all  the  brethren,  as  though  some  other 
persons  not  known  simply  b3r  that  general  name  for  the  members 
of  the  church  were  to  give  the  salutation. 

a  holy  kiss.  The  kiss  is  a  common  mode  of  salutation  between 
men  and  men,  as  well  as  between  women  and  women,  in  the 
East  at  the  present  day,  as  it  is  also  in  Continental  countries. 
It  was  especially  appropriate  among  the  Christians,  since  such 
people  were  taught  to  regard  one  another  as  brethren.  In  very 
primitive  times  it  was  exchanged  indiscriminately  among  the 
members  of  a  church  ;  subsequently  the  men  kissed  the  men, 
and  the  women  kissed  the  women.  It  must  be  understood  here 
that  the  word  'brethren'  includes  the  'sisters'  in  the  church. 
Enthusiasm  and  simplicity  made  this  possible ;  but  we  can 
understand  how  such  practices  gave  rise  to  scandalous  libels 
among  prurient  critics  in  the  heathen  world.  They  may  help 
to  account  for  the  gross  charges  that  were  brought  against  the 
early  Christians,  the  purest  people  of  their  day  being  falsely 
accused  of  impurity.  In  Peter  (v.  14")  we  have  'the  kiss  of  love,' 
the  word  for  'love'  being  the  specially  Christian  word  agape, 
a  different  word  from  that  used  to  designate  the  love  of  the 
two  sexes — eros. 

27.  I  adjure  you:  an  unusually  strong  expression  not  easily 
to  be  accounted  for.  Baur  even  took  this  as  a  sign  that  the 
Epistle  was  not  genuine.  It  has  been  suggested  that  Paul  is 
only  calling  attention  to  the  importance  of  what  he  is  about 
to  say.  But  the  language  is  too  strong  for  that.  It  seems  to 
imply  a  fear  that  the  Epistle  may  not  be  read  to  all  the  members 

the  distinction  must  not  be  pressed,  as  the  prepositions  are  used 
more  loosely  in  late  Greek  than  in  the  classics. 


2  2o  I   THESSALONIANS   5.  28 

you  by  the  Lord  that  this  epistle  be  read  unto  all  the 
brethren. 
2s      The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  you. 

of  the  church.  If,  as  seems  probable,  this  verse  is  especially 
designed  for  the  elders  or  other  leading  persons  who  would 
receive  the  letter  in  the  first  instance,  it  indicates  the  Apostle's 
apprehension  lest  they  should  retain  it  and  only  communicate 
its  contents  to  those  whom  they  chose  to  take  into  their  con- 
fidence.    Paul  puts  them  on  oath  not  to  do  this. 

all  the  brethren:  including  (i)  the  most  poor,  humble, 
ignorant,  and  obscure  members  of  the  church,  (2)  those  for 
any  reason  out  of  favour  with  the  leaders  of  the  church,  and 
(3)  any  who  might  be  absent  when  the  Epistle  arrived,  This 
shews  Paul's  anxiety  that  his  teaching  should  not  be  limited 
to  any  privileged  order  in  the  church,  that  it  should  be  shared 
by  every  member  on  the  most  democratic  principle.  Paul's 
nine  Epistles  to  churches  contain  his  most  advanced  teaching, 
and  therefore  the  most  difficult  theological  statements  of  the 
Bible.  Yet  they  are  not  to  be  reserved  for  an  esoteric  group 
of  theologians.  Even  the  most  doctrinal  discussions  are  to  be 
freely  set  before  all  private  Christians. 

28.  grace:  a  modification  of  the  Greek  salutation  (chaire),  with 
deeper  meaning,  as  our  Lord's  salutation,  'Peace  be  unto  you,' 
is  the  usual  Hebrew  salutation,  but  also  with  deeper  meaning 
(John  xx.  19).  The  two  were  combined  in  the  opening  of 
the  Epistle  (i.  1).  One  only  is  found  at  the  close,  and  that  the 
more  characteristically  Christian.  The  Apostle  desires  that 
the  free  favour  of  Christ  and  its  good  effects  may  be  with  his 
readers. 

our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  This  salutation  is  thus  confined 
to  blessings  given  by  Christ  as  especially  the  Divine  Being 
through  whom  grace  comes.  A  usual  form  of  salutation  in 
Paul's  Epistles,  it  is  repeated  in  identical  words  in  Rom.  xvi. 
20 ;  at  the  conclusion  of  2  Thessalonians  (except  that  there 
the  word  'all'  is  added— 'with  you  all');  and  in  1  Corinthians 
(with  the  slight  modification,  i  the  Lord,'  &c,  instead  of  '  our 
Lord,'  &c).  In  2  Corinthians  we  have  the  full  benediction  :  '  The 
grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  love  of  God,  and  the 
communion  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with  you  all,'  in  Galatians, 
Philippians,  and  Philemon  :  '  The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  be  with  your  spirit  '—with  the  word  '  brethren '  added 
in  Galatians.  The  form  is  more  varied  and  longer  in  Ephesians, 
but  there  too  grace  is  named  (see  Eph.  vi.  23,  24).  Colossians, 
1  and  2  Timothy  and  Titus  have  simply  '  Grace  be  with  you,' 
but  Titus  adds  the  word   'all' — 'with  you  all'    Thus    'grace' 


I   THESSALONIANS   5.  38  221 

appears  in  the  closing  salutation  of  every  one  of  the  Pauline 
Epistles.  It  is  also  found  in  Hebrews — 'Grace  be  with  you  aH,' 
but  not  in  the  Epistle  salutations  of  James,  Peter,  John,  or  Jude. 
Thus  it  is  characteristically  Pauline. 

The  subscription  in  the  A.  V.  stating  that  the  Epistle  'was' 
written  from  Athens  disappears  from  the  R.  V.  because  it  certainly 
was  not  in  the  original  text.  Moreover  it  is  incorrect.  See 
Introduction,  p.  21  ff.  The  subscriptions  to  Epistles  were  added 
by  Greek  editors  of  a  later  age,  perhaps  in  the  second  centuiy. 


THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF  PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 


THESSALONIANS 

1      Paul,  and  Silvanus,  and  Timothy,  unto  the  church  of 
the  Thessalonians  in  God  our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus 

i.  i,  2.  Salutation.  Paul  and  his  two  companions  salute  the 
Thessalonian  church,  wishing  its  members  grace  and  peace  from 
God  and  Christ. 

1.  Identical  with  i  Thess.  i.  i,  except  that  there  we  read  '  God 
the  Father,'  while  here  we  have  God  our  Father.  For  explana- 
tions see  annotations  on  the  companion  passage.  The  similarity 
of  the  opening  words  points  to  the  probability  of  there  not  having 
been  any  long  interval  between  the  writing  of  the  two  letters. 

Silvanus,  and  Timothy.  These  two  companions  being  still 
with  the  Apostle  are  associated  with  him  in  this  letter  as  they 
had  been  in  the  former  letter.  Thus  we  have  the  same  curious 
complexity  of  authorship  again.  The  letter  is  written  in  the 
first  person  plural  in  order  to  include  these  men.  Yet  for  the 
most  part  it  evidently  expresses  the  individual  convictions  of 
Paul,  who  drops  the  plural  form  in  one  place  and  uses  the 
pronoun  '  I '  (ii.  5). 

God  our  Father :  an  expression  most  frequently  used  at  the 
opening  of  Paul's  Epistles  (e.  g.  Rom.  i.  7  ;  1  Cor.  i.  3  ;  2  Cor.  i.  2  ; 
Eph.i.  2;  Phil.  i.  2  ;  Col.  i.  2  ;  Philem.  3V  This  slight  variation  on 
1  Thessalonians  is  probably  accidental.  Still  it  is  illuminating,  for 
it  shews  that  while  God  the  Father  and  "Jesus  Christ  are  here 
named  together,  and  again  in  verse  2,  the  Divine  Fatherhood 
referred  to  is  not  that  of  the  Trinitarian  idea  in  which  God  is  the 
Father  of  Christ,  the  Son,  but  that  Fatherhood  of  God's  relation  to 
men  which  is  prominent  in  our  Lord's  teaching.    The  Apostle  uses 


II  THESSALONIANS   1.  2  223 

Christ;  Grace  to  you  and  peace  from  God  the  Father 
and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

the  term  especially  with  regard  to  Christians,  whom  he  regards 
as  God's  adopted  sons.  Thus  he  writes,  'as  many  as  are  led 
by  the  Spirit  of  God,  these  are  sons  of  God '  (Rom.  viii.  14),  and 
refers  to  Christians  Having  'received  the  spirit  of  adoption'  (verse 
i5\  this  spirit  enabling  them  to  cry  '  Abba,  Father '  (ibid).  Accord- 
ingly the  Divine  Fatherhood  is  that  of  adopted  children  realized 
by  them  through  their  reception  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Probably 
therefore  the  pronoun  '  our '  as  here  used  points  to  Christians 
rather  than  to  mankind  at  large.  Nevertheless,  in  a  later  Epistle 
Paul  writes  of  the  larger  Divine  Fatherhood  which  includes  the 
whole  human  race,  and  indeed  other  spiritual  beings  also,  describ- 
ing God  as  '  the  Father,  from  whom  every  family  in  heaven  and  on 
earth  is  named'  (Eph.  iii.  14). 

the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.     See  note  on  1  Thessalonians  i.  1. 

2.  Grace  .  .  .  peace.     See  the  same  note. 

from  God  the  Father,  &c.  This  clause  appears  in  the  A.  V. 
of  1  Thessalonians  i.  1,  as  well  as  here,  probably,  however,  only 
because  it  was  transferred  to  some  MSS.  from  the  Second  Epistle, 
as  it  is  absent  from  equally  good  MSS.  But  here  it  has  the  support 
of  full  MSS.  authority,  and  unquestionably  belongs  to  the  original 
text.  It  is  a  thoroughly  Pauline  phrase,  the  same  words  occur- 
ring in  the  salutations  of  all  Paul's  Epistles  to  churches,  except 
Colossians  and  1  Thessalonians  and  also  that  to  Philemon,  with 
the  slight  variation  of  the  use  of  kour'  instead  of  'the,'  as  'God 
our  Father'  in  all  the  Epistles  but  Galatians,  and  the  substitution 
of  '  our '  for  '  the '  in  the  second  clause,  as  f  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ' 
in  that  Epistle.  The  Revisers  omit  this  second  clause  from 
Colossians  altogether,  and  the  salutation  in  that  Epistle  reads 
simply,  '  Grace  to  you  and  peace  from  God  our  Father '  (Col.  i.  2). 
We  have  the  same  form  of  salutation  in  the  three  pastoral  Epistles, 
though  rather  more  modified,  the  word  'mercy'  coming  between 
'grace'  and  'peace'  in  1  and  2  Timothy,  and  the  title  'our 
Saviour'  being  appended  to  the  name  'Christ  Jesus'  in  TituSj 
and  '  our  Lord '  in  1  and  2  Timothy.     Thus  we  have  : — 

'  Grace  to  you  and  peace  from  God  our  Father  and  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ'  (Rom. ;  1  and  2  Cor. ;  Eph.;  Phil. ;  Philem.). 

'  Grace  to  you  and  peace  from  God  the  Father  and  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ'  (2  Thess.). 

'  Grace  to  you  and  peace  from  God  the  Father,  and  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ'  (Gal.). 

'  Grace  to  you  and  peace  from  God  our  Father'  (Col.). 

'Grace  and  peace  from  God  the  Father  and  Christ  Jesus  our 
Saviour '  (Titus). 


224  II  THESSALONIANS   1.  2 

'  Grace,  mere}',  peace  from  God  the  Father  and  Christ  Jesus  our 
Lord'  (i  and  2  Tim.). 

The  salutations  in  other  N.  T.  writers  are  as  follows  : — 

'  Grace  to  you  and  peace  be  multiplied '  (1  Pet.). 

•  Grace  to  you  and  peace  be  multiplied  in  the  knowledge  of  God 
and  of  Jesus  our  Lord'  (2  Pet). 

1  Mercy  unto  you  and  peace  and  love  be  multiplied'  (Jude). 

'  Grace,  mercy,  peace  shall  be  with  us,  from  God  the  Father, 
and  from  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  Father,  in  truth  and  love' 
(2  John). 

Hebrews,  James,  1  and  3  John  contain  no  opening  salutations. 
God  the  Father.  The  A.  V.  has  'God  our  Father,'  and 
Tischendorf  in  his  critical  text  retains  that  reading.  The  MSS. 
are  about  equally  divided ;  but  Westcott  and  Hort  omit  the 
Greek  word  for  'our,'  and  are  followed  by  the  Revisers.  It  is 
likely  to  have  been  inserted  by  a  later  hand  as  an  assimilation  to 
the  more  usual  form  of  the  Pauline  salutation.  Still,  the  father- 
hood in  the  phrase  '  God  the  Father '  is  evidently  the  same  as 
that  in  '  God  our  Father,'  since  that  expression  occurs  in  the 
previous  verse  as  well  as  in  most  other  salutations.  It  does  not 
refer  to  the  Father  as  the  first  Person  of  the  Trinity  in  contra- 
distinction from  the  Son  as  the  second  Person,  but  points  to  God's 
fatherly  relation  to  His  human  children,  especially  Christians. 

and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  The  structure  of  the  sentence 
indicates  that  both  grace  and  peace  flow  from  God  and  Christ, 
a  twofold  blessing  from  a  twofold  source.  Such  a  sentence 
certainly  implies  very  close  union  in  the  Divine  action.  Still  it 
is  possible  to  make  a  logical,  if  not  a  real,  distinction.  In  that 
case  'grace'  will  be  especially  associated  with  'the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ/  and  'peace  '  with  'God  the  Father.'  This  is  in  accordance 
with  the  usage  of  the  Apostle.  Thus  the  phrase  '  the  grace  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ'  occurs  frequently  in  his  benedictions  (cf.  Rom. 
xvi.  20  ;  1  Cor.  xvi.  23  ;  2  Cor.  xiii.  14  ;  Gal.  vi.  18  ;  Phil.  iv.  23; 
1  Thess.  v.  28  ;  2  Thess.  iii.  18).  On  the  other  hand,  Paul  writes 
of  '  the  peace  of  God  '  (Phil.  iv.  7),  and  '  the  God  of  peace  '  (Rom. 
xv-  33,  xvi-  2°  5  Phil.  iv.  9  ;  1  Thess.  v.  23,  &c).  He  also  has  one 
reference  to  the  'peace  of  Christ'  (Col.  iii.  15)-  But  he  more 
frequently  ascribes  the  gift  of  peace  directly  to  God.  Thus  he 
says,  '  God  hath  called  us  in  peace'  (1  Cor.  vii.  15).  When 
reading  the  whole  verse  we  may  understand  that  peace,  the 
gift  of  God,  is  encircled  by  the  grace  of  Christ,  guarded  by  it, 
the  peace  of  God  being  in  a  frame  of  the  grace  of  Christ.  Grace 
is  named  first.  That  is  thoroughly  Pauline,  as  the  argument  of 
the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  shews.  Through  the  grace  of  Christ 
we  enter  into  the  peace  of  God.  Nevertheless,  the  compact 
sentence  indicates  the  close  union  of  the  two  gifts  as  it  does 
the  close  union  of  their  two  sources. 


II  THESSALONIANS   1.  3  225 

We  are  bound  to  give  thanks  to  God  alway  for  you,  3 
brethren,  even  as  it  is  meet,  for  that  your  faith  groweth 
exceedingly,  and  the  love  of  each  one  of  you  all  toward 

i.  3-12.  Congratulations  for  fidelity  under  difficulties.  God  is  to 
be  thanked  for  the  growing  faith  and  love  of  the  Thessalonians. 
The  Apostle  is  exulting  among  the  churches  over  their  faith  and 
patience  under  persecution,  by  means  of  which  they  are  being 
made  worthy  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  At  the  revelation  of  Christ 
they  will  have  rest  and  their  enemies  severe  punishment.  There- 
fore he  is  continually  praying  for  them  that  God  may  reckon  them 
worthy  of  their  calling  and  that  Christ  may  be  glorified  by  means 
of  them. 

3.  We:  Paul,  Silvanus,  and  Timothy;  but  chiefly  Paul.  The 
two  companions  soon  fade  into  shadowy  presences  and  pass  out 
of  notice  altogether,  and  then,  though  the  plural  pronoun  is 
retained  throughout  the  Epistle,  it  really  represents  the  personality 
of  Paul  alone. 

are  bound :  lit.  i  owe  ' ;  it  is  a  debt.  We  must  thank  God, 
a  strong  expression  indicating  unusual  reason  for  gratitude. 

to  give  thanks.  As  in  the  previous  Epistle  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians (i.  2),  and  all  his  Epistles  to  churches  except  Galatians, 
the  Apostle  begins  by  congratulating  his  readers  on  the  good  news 
that  he  has  received  concerning  them  and  thanking  God  for  their 
spiritual  progress.  This  progress  is  always  ascribed  to  God, 
never  attributed  to  the  unaided  efforts  of  his  readers,  and  therefore 
the  congratulations  always  take  the  form  of  thanksgivings. 

as  it  is  meet :  '  worthy '  or  '  fitting.'  While  the  phrase  i  we 
are  bound'  indicates  duty  towards  God,  this  additional  phrase 
points  to  suitability  in  the  condition  of  the  readers.  Thanksgiving 
on  the  Apostle's  part  when  contemplating  their  progress  is 
appropriate  to  what  he  sees  in  it. 

faith:  named  first,  because  the  root-grace  from  which  the 
other  graces  spring,  as  in  the  previous  Epistle  [1  Thess.  i.  3). 

groweth  exceedingly.  This  is  something  additional  to  the 
ground  of  thanksgiving  in  the  earlier  letter,  where  the  work  of 
faith  was  simply  referred  to  as  a  fact.  Subsequent  information 
has  led  the  Apostle  to  perceive  a  great  and  continuous  increase  in 
the  faith  of  his  converts. 

love  of  each  one  of  you  all,  &c.  :  a  remarkably  full  and 
comprehensive  expression.  The  Apostle  is  careful  to  make  it 
clear  that  there  are  no  exceptions  to  the  experience  of  brotherly 
love.  It  is  found  in  every  member  of  the  church.  This,  too. 
shews  an  advance  beyond  the  earlier  writing,  which  merely 
mentions  '  labour  of  love  '  in  a  general  way.  In  that  Epistle  the 
Apostle  exhorted  his  readers  to  '  abound  more  and  more '  in  love 
(9)  o 


226  II  THESSALONIANS  1.  4,5 

4  one  another  aboundeth ;  so  that  we  ourselves  glory  in 
you  in  the  churches  of  God  for  your  patience  and  faith 
in  all  your   persecutions   and  in   the  afflictions   which 

5  ye  endure;  which  is  a  manifest  token  of  the  righteous 

to  all  the  brethren  (1  Thess.  v.  10  .  Now  he  acknowledges  that 
the  end  of  his  exhortations  is  attained.  He  has  nothing  more  to 
wish  for  in  this  direction. 

4.  glory:  rather,  'exult.' 

the  churches  of  God.  What  churches  ?  We  only  know  of 
the  one  church  at  Corinth,  in  Achaia,  where  the  Apostle  wrote 
the  Epistle.  This  phrase  suggests  that  other  churches  had  been 
founded  in  the  villages  round  the  metropolis.  2  Corinthians  is 
addressed  to  '  all  the  saints  which  are  in  the  whole  of  Achaia ' 
as  well  as  '  the  church  of  God  which  is  at  Corinth'  (2  Cor.  i.  1), 
implying  that  there  were  Christians  in  other  parts  of  the  province. 
But  the  Apostle  may  have  written  to  churches  in  his  older 
mission-fields  in  Asia,  giving  them  an  account  of  these  remarkable 
Christians  at  Thessalonica. 

patience:  also  referred  to  in  the  opening  of  the  earlier 
Epistle  (1  Thess.  i.  3}  ;  evidently  much  needed  at  Thessalonica. 

persecutions :  more  particularly  referred  to  in  the  previous 
Epistle,  where  we  see  that  they  were  caused  by  the  converts'  fellow 
countrymen,  provoked  by  the  Jews    see  1  Thess.  iii.  14-16). 

5.  a  manifest  token,  &c. :  a  clear  sign  that  the  righteous 
judgement  of  God  will  take  place.  The  phrase  must  point  to  that 
future  event ;  it  cannot  mean  that  the  judgement  has  already 
happened,  or  is  now  in  process,  because  there  is  nothing  in  the 
context  to  suggest  either  position.  On  the  contrary,  the  immediate 
scene  is  that  of  the  endurance  of  persecution  by  the  Christians 
from  the  unrestrained  antagonism  of  their  opponents,  which 
therefore  is  not  yet  judged  and  condemned.  It  is  difficult  to  see 
the  connexion  of  the  clause  with  its  context,  either  in  what 
precedes  or  in  what  follows.  If  this  clause  were  omitted  the 
whole  passage  would  run  on  smoothly,  thus: — verse  4,  'in  the 
afflictions  which  ye  endure,'  followed  immediately  by  the  second 
part  of  verse  5  :  '  to  the  end  that  ye  may  be  accounted  worthy,'  &c. 
Accordingly  Schmiedel  suggests  that  the  sentences  may  have 
been  transposed  by  a  copyist,  and  that  the  clause  in  question  may 
have  stood  originally  after  the  word  \  suffer  '  in  verse  5.  But  we 
have  no  MS.  authority  for  such  an  alteration  in  the  text.  Reading 
it  as  it  stands  we  must  take  the  clause  as  a  parenthesis.  Still,  to 
find  a  place  here  at  all,  it  must  have  a  point  of  attachment,  and 
the   question  arises,  Where   is   that  to  be  found?    what  is  the 

1  manifest    token  *  ?      Two   answers   have    been    offered    to    this 
question  :    (1)  That  it  consists  in  the  persecutions  and  afflictions. 


II  THESSALONIANS  1.  6,  7  227 

judgement  of  God ;  to  the  end  that  ye  may  be  counted 
worthy  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  for  which  ye  also  suffer  : 
if  so  be  that  it  is  a  righteous  thing  with  God  to  recom-  6 
pense  affliction  to  them  that  afflict  you,  and  to  you  that  7 
are  afflicted  rest  with  us,  at  the  revelation  of  the  Lord 

But  these  are  not  in  themselves  clear  signs  of  the  judgement 
that  is  to  follow  them.  (2)  That  it  consists  in  the  patient 
endurance  of  these  troubles— a  much  more  probable  idea.  The 
display  of  such  a  martyr  temper  is  an  eloquent  protest  against 
the  injustice  done  to  the  Christians,  and  an  indication  that  God, 
who  cannot  but  approve  of  such  conduct,  will  vindicate  it  in  the 
punishment  of  the  oppressors. 

In  illustration  of  this  thought  Mr.  Garrod  quotes  Browning's 
Abt  Vogler : — 

And  what  is  our  failure  here  but  a  triumph's  evidence 
For  the  fulness  of  the  days  ? ' 

to  the  end :  the  Divine  purpose  in  permitting  the  persecution. 
It  is  discipline,  education,  or  at  least  a  test  of  fitness. 

the  kingdom  of  God.  See  note  on  1  Thess.  ii.  12.  As  in  the 
earlier  passage  the  kingdom  is  here  regarded  as  in  the  future,  as 
the  happy  condition  when  the  reign  of  God  is  established  on  earth, 
no  doubt  associated  in  the  mind  of  the  Apostle  with  the  paronsia, 
the  return  of  Christ. 

6.  if  so  be :  rather,  *  if  indeed/  The  Greek  word  (eiper)  is 
used  '  by  a  species  of  rhetorical  politeness  ...  of  that  about  which 
there  is  no  doubt '  (Grimm-Thayer). 

7.  rest  with  us :  referring  to  the  future  establishment  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  just  mentioned.  That  will  be  an  end  of  the  present 
condition  of  conflict  and  hardship  from  which  the  missionaries 
as  well  as  their  converts  are  suffering.  As  they  are  troubled  with 
the  same  persecutions,  so  they  will  enjoy  the  same  rest.  And 
the  association  in  the  rest  will  be  closer.  Now  the  Apostle  is 
separated  from  his  friends  at  Thessalonica.  At  the  happy  time 
coming  they  will  be  together.  The  idea  of  participation  together 
in  this  blessedness  is  suggested  elsewhere,  for  instance,  'as  ye 
are  partakers  of  the  sufferings,  so  also  are  ye  of  the  comfort' 
(2  Cor.  i.  7). 

the  revelation.  The  Greek  word  is  apocalypsis,  the 
apocalypse.  The  parousia  will  result  from  an  apocalypse.  It 
is  not  merely  that  Jesus  will  come  ;  he  will  be  manifested.  This 
may  imply  that  he  is  already  present,  but  invisible.  What  we 
call  the  Second  Coming  is  really  the  revelation  of  the  Christ  who 
is  present  all  along,  though  hitherto  unseen. 

Q  2 


228  II  THERSALOXIANS   1.  8 

8  Jesus  from  heaven  with  the  angels  of  his  power  in 
flaming  fire,  rendering  vengeance  to  them  that  know  not 
God,  and  to  them  that  obey  not  the  gospel  of  our  Lord 

from,  heaven.  No  doubt,  in  form,  the  idea  is  that  of  coming 
from  above,  from  the  distant  heaven.  But  if  in  reality  heaven 
is  to  be  thought  of  as  the  presence  of  God  in  the  sphere  of  the 
spiritual,  local  terms  do  not  strictly  apply  to  it.  In  becoming 
manifest  Jesus  passes  from  heaven  to  earth. 

the  angels  of  his  power.  This  might  be  read,  'his  angels 
of  power,'  i.  e.  a  Hebraism  meaning  '  his  mighty  angels,'  as  in 
the  A.  V.  But  probably  Ellicott  is  right  in  understanding  it  to 
signify  the  angels  who  belong  to  his  power,  through  whom  it  is 
exercised.  Jesus  spoke  of  coming  with  accompanying  angels  (Matt. 
xxiv.  31,  xxv.  31).  In  the  previous  Epistle  (1  Thess.  iv.  16)  Paul 
wrote  of  the  advent  of  Christ  'with  the  voice  of  the  archangel.' 

8.  in  flaming  fire.  The  R.  V.  associates  these  words  with 
the  preceding  clause,  thus  taking  it  as  descriptive  of  the  accom- 
panying terrors  of  Christ's  advent  to  judgement.  The  A.  V. 
connects  it  with  the  sentence  that  follows,  and  so  reads  it  as 
describing  the  instrument  of  vengeance.  Mr.  Garrod  prefers  the 
latter  reading,  comparing  it  with  the  text  lower  down,  'whom 
the  Lord  Jesus  shall  slay  with  the  breath  of  his  mouth'  (ii.  8)  as 
though  he  were  breathing  out  fire  (cf.  Ps.  xviii.  8).  But  in  favour 
of  the  Revisers'  reading  we  have  the  familiar  O.  T.  image  of  the 
manifestation  of  God  in  fire  as  at  the  burning  bush  (Exod.  iii.  2), 
the  pillar  of  fire  (xiii.  21),  Jehovah  descending  at  Sinai  in  fire 
(xix.  18),  the  glory  of  the  Lord  'like  devouring  fire'  (xxiv.  17  ; 
cf.  Pss.  xviii.  12,  1.  3,  xcvii.  3"),  'behold  the  Lord  will  come  with 
fire '  (Isa.  lxvi.  15).  This  O.  T.  conception  is  now  applied  to 
Christ  in  his  revelation  for  judgement.  It  signifies  a  splendid 
terror,  a  dangerous  majesty. 

them  that  know  not  God :  the  heathen.  This  reads  harshly, 
as  though  the  heathen  were  to  be  punished  merely  for  their 
ignorance.  No  explanation  is  given  here.  But  in  writing  to 
the  Romans  Paul  enters  into  an  elaborate  explanation  of  the  case. 
He  there  attributes  the  present  benighted  condition  of  the  pagan 
world  to  moral  causes.  There  was  a  knowledge  of  God  displaj'ed 
in  the  creation.  But  this  was  wilfully  suppressed  and  stifled  by 
wickedness.     Therefore  God  is  justly  angry  (cf.  Rom.  i.  18,  19). 

them  that  obey  not,  &c.  The  Greek  clearly  indicates  another 
class  of  people,  by  repeating  the  article.  We  are  not  to  think  of 
the  heathen  remaining  in  their  ignorance  because  they  reject  the 
gospel ;  but  first  we  have  the  heathen  condemned  for  their  guilty 
ignorance,  and  then  those  who  reject  the  gospel.  This  second 
class  consists  primarily  of  the  hearers  of  the  missionaries,  ar.d 


II  THESSALONIANS   1.  9  229 

Jesus  :  who  shall  suffer  punishment,  even  eternal  destruc-  9 
tion  from  the  face  of  the  Lord  and  from  the  glory  of  his 

especially  those  people  at  Thessalonica,  both  Jews  and  pagans, 
who  rejected  their  message. 

obey:  not  merely  'believe.'  The  fault  is  moral,  not 
intellectual.  It  lies  with  the  will.  These  people  will  not  submit 
to  the  claims  of  the  gospel 

9.  punishment:  not  the  Greek  word  rendered  'punishment' 
in  the  parable  of  the  'sheep  and  the  goats'  (kolasis,  Matt.  xxv. 
46),  which  really  signifies  'chastisement,'  but  a  word  (dike) 
connected  with  the  same  root  as  the  Greek  for  'judge'  and 
'judgement,'  meaning  first  of  all  'right,'  'justice'  ;  then  a  'judicial 
hearing,'  and  a  'judicial  decision,'  a  '  sentence '  (cf.  Acts  xxv.  15)  ; 
and  so  finally,  '  the  execution  of  a  sentence,'  which  is  its  significa- 
tion here.     It  is  the  word  rendered  'punishment'  in  Jude  7. 

eternal.  The  primary  meaning  of  this  adjective  is  '  that 
which  belongs  to  the  ages.'  Thus  its  strict  application  would  be 
indefinite,  pointing  to  that  which  is  vast  and  age-long,  without 
any  determination  of  endlessness.  But  in  usage  it  stands  for 
what  is  everlasting,  as  in  the  phrase  'eternal  life.'  There  is 
another  word  (ai'dios)  used  for  the  complete  philosophical  idea 
of  endlessness  which  is  applied  to  the  doom  of  fallen  angels  in 
Jude  6,  but  nowhere  in  the  N.  T.  to  the  punishment  of  human 
beings.  The  word  rendered  'eternal'  'gives  prominence  to  the 
immeasurableness  of  eternity '  (Grimm-Thayer).  In  Philo  we 
find  it  associated  with  punishment  or  chastisement  {kolasis). 

destruction.  This  cannot  be  a  long  process  of  being  destroyed, 
to  which  the  adjective  '  eternal '  is  added  in  order  to  suggest  its 
continuance.  The  word  points  to  a  condition  once  for  all  settled. 
Thus  an  eternal  destruction  is  equivalent  to  a  lasting  destruction, 
a  destruction  which  is  never,  or  at  least  not  soon,  superseded  by 
a  restoration.  Still  it  is  too  much  to  read  into  the  word  absolute 
extinction  of  being,  annihilation.  It  is  an  indefinite  term  in  popular 
usage.  Thus  Paul  adopts  it  in  the  phrase  '  the  destruction  of 
the  flesh'  (1  Cor.  v.  5),  where  he  evidently  does  not  even  mean 
physical  death,  but  indicates  the  restraint  of  carnal  appetite 
through  the  chastisement  involved  in  bodily  sickness.  The  word 
is  used  in  a  general  sense  in  the  earlier  Epistle  (1  Thess.  v.  3). 

from  the  face,  &c.  :  a  Hebraism,  the  face  representing  the 
presence  and  the  favour.  This  destruction  involves  banishment 
from  God  and  the  loss  of  His  favour.  Trouble  is  regarded  as  God 
hiding  His  face  (Pss.  x.  n,  xiii.  1).  To  behold  God's  face  is  great 
joy  (Ps.  xvii.  15). 

the  lord :  God.  Both  before  and  after  this  verse  Christ  is 
indicated,  as' our  Lord  Jesus  Christ'  and  'the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.' 
The  O.  T.  idea  of  the  face  of  Jehovah  appears  in  this  verse. 


230  II  THESSALONIANS   1.  10 

ro  might,  when  he  shall  come  to  be  glorified  in  his  saints, 
and  to  be  marvelled  at  in  all  them  that  believed  (because 

the  glory  of  his  might.  This  could  be  read  as  a  Hebraism 
meaning  '  His  mighty  glory.'  But  such  an  idea  is  not  consonant 
with  usage.  It  would  be  better,  therefore,  to  understand  the 
phrase  to  mean  '  the  glory  that  belongs  to  His  might,'  the 
splendour  radiating  out  of  God's  great  power  and  the  exercise  of 
it.  Those  who  suffer  punishment  are  cut  off  from  the  glad 
appreciation  of  this  glory  of  God's  great  deeds  of  might  in  which 
His  true  people  will  share. 

10.  when  he  shall  come.  The  previous  verse  would 
grammatically  lead  us  to  take  the  pronoun  'he'  for  God,  and 
the  sentence  for  a  description  of  a  theophany.  Yet  the  language 
is  so  plainly  in  line  with  the  Apostle's  frequent  references  to  the 
coming  of  Jesus  Christ  that  we  must  so  read  it  here.  The 
transition  from  the  Father  to  the  Son  is  made  quite  readily  and 
almost  unconsciously  here  as  in  other  places  by  means  of  the 
indefinite  term  '  the  Lord.' 

to  toe  glorified :  his  splendour  to  be  made  manifest. 

in  his  saints:  as  though  the  glory  were  shining  through 
them.  The  idea  seems  to  be  that  what  Christ  does  for  his  saints 
will  be  seen  to  redound  to  his  glory. 

saints :  godry  people,  and  therefore  including  all  Christians, 
not  merely  exceptionally  hoi}'  Christians,  according  to  the  usage 
of  primitive  times.  The  members  of  a  church  are  all  '  called  to 
be  saints'  (Rom.  i.  7  ;  i  Cor.  i.  2;  2  Cor.  i.  1),  and  are  even 
addressed  as  being  already  saints  in  such  expressions  as  4  all  the 
saints  in  Christ  Jesus  which  are  at  Philippi '  (Phil.  i.  1), '  the  saints 
and  faithful  brethren  in  Christ  which  are  at  Colossae'  (Col.  i.  2), 
'  Salute  every  saint  in  Christ  Jesus'  (Phil.  iv.  21).  But  in  addition 
to  Christians  probably  the  word  '  saint '  here  includes  the  godly 
of  O.  T.  times,  as  the  following  clause  about  those  who  believed 
points  specifically  to  Christians.  It  is  not  likely  that  two  clauses 
so  markedly  distinct  should  refer  to  exactly  the  same  people. 

to  toe  marvelled  at.  The  word  '  admired '  in  the  A.  V.  is  used 
in  a  sense  now  obsolete,  but  once  familiar,  meaning  'wondered 
at.'     Thus  in  Milton  we  read — 

'The  undaunted  fiend  what  this  might  be  admired; 
Admired,  not  feared'    ^Paradise  Lost,  ii.  677,  67S) ; 

and  in  Shakespeare — 

'  I   perceive,  these  lords 
At  this  encounter  do  so  much  admire 
That  they  devour  their  reason'  \Tcmpcst,  Act  v.  Scene  1). 

in,  &c. :    the  same   relationship  as  in   the  previous  clause. 


II  THESSALONIANS   1.  n  231 

our  testimony  unto  you  was  believed)  in  that  day.     To  11 
which  end  we  also  pray  always  for  you,  that  our  God 
may  count  you  worthy  of  your  calling,  and  fulfil  every 

What  Christ  does  in  the  case  of  those  who  believe  in  him  will  be 
so  manifested  in  the  great  day  as  to  be  a  source  of  wonderment — 
whether  to  themselves,  or  to  other  beings,  such  as  angels,  who 
might  be  conceived  of  as  spectators,  we  are  not  told. 

all  them  that  believed:  Christians,  those  who  accepted  the 
apostolic  message  with  faith.  The  word  'believed'  iin  the  Greek 
aorist  tense,  a  correction  of  the  A. V.  'believe,'  in  accordance 
with  all  good  MSS.)  indicates  a  single  act  of  faith  experienced  in 
some  past  time,  and  therefore  points  to  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  life. 

because:  justifying  the  previous  clause.  The  Thessalonians 
had  accepted  the  apostolic  message  with  faith.  They  are  specimens 
of  the  people  who  believed  and,  as  such,  instances  of  the  fact  that 
there  will  be  those  in  whom  the  marvel  of  Christ's  redeeming 
power  will  be  exhibited  at  the  great  day  of  revelation  and 
judgement. 

our  testimony.  The  substance  of  the  apostolic  preaching 
is  frequently  called  •  testimony,'  because  the  apostles  present 
themselves  as  witnesses  of  what  they  themselves  have  seen  and 
experienced,  especially  the  great,  convincing  fact  of  the  resurrec- 
tion. This  is  distinctly  set  forth  in  the  narrative  of  the  selection 
of  a  substitute  for  Judas  (Acts  i.  21,  22,  'a  witness  with  us  of 
his  resurrection ').  Paul  claims  to  have  been  such  a  witness 
himself  (i  Cor.  xv.  8).  Thus  we  have  'the  testimony  of  Christ' 
(1  Cor.  i.  6),  meaning  witness-bearing  to  what  is  known  about 
Christ. 

in  that  day :  to  be  connected  with  the  main  sentence,  '  to  be 
glorified  ...  to  be  marvelled  at,'  not  with  the  clause  immediately 
preceding;  the  R.  V.  rightly  agrees  with  the  A.V.  in  treating  this 
as  a  parenthesis.  '  That  day '  is  the  day  of  the  revelation  of  Christ 
just  described. 

11.  To  which  end:  the  end  referred  to  inverse  5,  'that  ye 
may  be  counted  worthy  of  the  kingdom,'  &c,  repeated  in  the 
sentence  here  beginning.  The  letter  takes  a  new  turn.  The 
great  prospect  of  the  future  just  described  is  the  motive  of  the 
Apostle's  prayers  to  which  he  now  refers. 

also:  praying  in  addition  to  glorying  or  exulting  mentioned 
in  verse  4. 

your  calling :  not  that  to  which  you  are  called,  your  vocation, 
but  the  process  of  calling  you.  Schmiedel  takes  this  to  be  a  future 
call,  the  last  call  to  participation  in  final  blessedness.  Such  an 
interpretation  would  agree  with  the  summons  in  the  parable  of  the 


232  II  THESSALONIANS   1.  12 

desire  of  goodness  and  every  work  of  faith,  with  power ; 
a  that  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  may  be  glorified  in  you, 
and  ye  in  him,  according  to  the  grace  of  our  God  and 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 


Ten  Virgins,  'Behold,  the  bridegroom!  Coinc  ye  forth  to  meet 
him'  (Matt.  xxv.  6).  But  it  is  not  in  accordance  with  Paul's 
references  to  the  calling  of  Christians,  which  invariably  stand  for 
the  invitation  to  enter  the  Christian  life  ^cf.  Rom.  viii.  30,  ix.  24  ; 
1  Cor.  vii.  15,  17;  Gal.  i.  6,  15  ;  1  Thess.  ii.  12,  iv.  7  ;  2  Thess.  ii. 
T4  ;  2  Tim.  i.  9,  in  all  of  which  cases  the  verb  is  in  the  past  tense). 
Paul  uses  the  word  three  times  in  the  present  tense  in  a  similar 
connexion  (Rom.  ix.  11  ;  Gal.  v.  8  ;  1  Thess.  v.  24) ;  but  there  he  is 
referring  to  the  custom  and  way  of  God,  how  he  is  a  God  who 
calls  with  certain  ends  in  view.  The  Apostle  never  has  the  verb 
in  the  future,  and  never  suggests  any  future  call  for  Christians. 
Mr.  Garrod,  who  agrees  with  Schmiedel  here,  cites  1  Thess.  ii.  12, 
•  That  ye  would  walk  worthy  of  God,  who  hath  called  you  unto 
his  kingdom.'  But,  though  that  verse  describes  a  call  to  what  is 
yet  future,  it  sets  the  calling  itself  in  the  past. 

every  desire  of  goodness.  The  A.  V.  understood  this  to 
refer  to  God,  translating  the  phrase,  '  all  the  good  pleasure  of  his 
goodness.'  The  word  that  the  Revisers  render  '  desire '  usually 
stands  for  God's  good  pleasure  (cf.  Eph.  i.  5,  9  ;  Phil.  ii.  13).  But 
there  are  reasons  for  rejecting  this  interpretation  :  (1)  The  addition 
of  the  Greek  word  agathostine,  here  translated  '  goodness,'  which 
Paul  never  applies  to  God,  but  always  to  men  (cf.  Rom.  xv.  14  ; 
Gal.  v.  22;  Eph.  v.  9).  (2)  The  following  clause,  which  refers  to 
human  experience.  Thus  we  have  the  two  clauses  in  parallel 
line — 'the  desire  of  goodness'  and  '  the  work  of  faith,'  both  being 
found  in  the  Thessalonians. 

every  work  of  faith.  These  like  the  desires  of  goodness 
are  to  be  fulfilled.  To  fulfil  a  desire  is  to  realize  it,  to  acquire 
the  thing  wished  for.  It  is  not  so  usual  to  associate  the  idea  of 
fulfilment  with  the  thought  of  works.  Paul  seems  to  mean  the 
bringing  these  works  to  a  successful  issue. 

with  power  :  associated  with  the  word  '  fulfil.'  God's  power 
is  sought  to  accomplish  what  is  desired,  whenever  the  desire 
springs  from  a  good  motive,  and  to  make  effectual  every  labour 
that  is  inspired  by  faith. 

12.  the  name  :  the  character  and  fame  (cf.  Phil.  ii.  9,  '  the  name 
which  is  above  every  name  '). 

glorified  in  you :  in  what  happens  in  your  life  and  experience, 
thus  exhibiting  the  goodness  and  greatness  of  Christ,  since  he 
is  the  source  of  every  Christian  excellency. 

ye  in  him  :  Christians  sharing  in  Christ's  glory  and  receiving 


II  THESSALONIANS  2.  i  253 

Now  wc  beseech  you,   brethren,  touching  the  coming  2 
of  our   Lord   Jesus   Christ,   and  our  gathering  together 

glory  from  him.     The  servants  come  in  for  a  share  of  the  honour 
of  the  master  whose  livery  they  wear. 

according'  to  the  grace,  &c.  :  in  harmony  with  the  whole 
system  of  grace.  That  involves  many  favours,  among  which  may 
be  placed  the  favours  just  mentioned. 

ii.  1-12.  Mistake  about  the  parousia.  The  Apostle  begs  his 
readers  not  to  be  easily  disturbed  by  what  they  take  to  be 
communications  from  him  to  the  effect  that  the  day  of  the  Lord 
is  already  present.  There  will  be  a  previous  apostasy  and  the 
revelation  of  a  mysterious  person  or  power  described  as  '  the  man 
of  sin,'  who  is  already  opposing  God  and  usurping  the  place  of 
God.  This  the  Apostle  had  stated  when  he  was  with  the 
Thessalonians.  At  present  there  is  a  restraining  influence. 
When  that  is  removed  the  lawless  one  will  be  slain  by  Christ, 
although  he  is  working  with  the  power  of  Satan  and  using  methods 
of  deceit  which  entangle  unrighteous  people  who  are  given  over 
by  God  to  the  delusion. 

The  previous  part  of  the  Epistle  is  all  in  a  way  introductory,  the 
salutation  being  followed  by  thanksgiving  and  prayer  down  to 
the  end  of  the  first  chapter.  Now  the  specific  purpose  of  the 
Epistle  appears.  It  is  written  in  the  main  in  order  to  counteract 
mistaken  ideas  about  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ. 

1.  we  beseech  you.  Thanksgiving  and  prayer  are  followed  by 
exhortation. 

touching :  lit.  '  on  behalf  of,'  not '  by,'  as  in  the  A.  V.  When 
Paul  beseeches  or  exhorts  with  such  an  appeal  as  '  by  the  mercies 
of  God '  (Rom.  xii.  i), '  through  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ' 
(1  Cor.  i.  10),  he  uses  another  Greek  preposition  {did)  ;  here  the 
preposition  is  hyper.  Thus  the  Apostle  may  mean  his  exhortation 
to  be  a  preparation  for  the  Second  Advent.  In  order  that  the 
great  event  may  be  rightly  treated  he  will  beg  his  friends  now 
to  take  a  right  view  of  it.  But  the  simpler  meaning  given  in 
the  R.V.  is  allowable,  and  it  seems  more  suitable  here.  The 
preposition  is  taken  as  indicating  the  subject  discussed,  as  if  we 
read  'about'  or  *  concerning.'  The  meaning  is  very  similar  in 
i.  4  where  it  is  translated  *  for '  in  the  clause  '/or  your  patience 
and  faith,'  these  graces  being  the  subjects  concerning  which  the 
Apostle  exults. 

coming  :  lit.  '  presence,'  the  parousia. 

our  gathering,  &c.  The  reference  is  to  the  gathering  of 
Christians  to  Christ  on  his  appearance  at  the  Second  Advent,  or 
revelation  of  his  Presence.  This  had  been  fully  described  in 
1  Thcss.  iv.  16,   17,  the  dead  rising  first,  then  the  living  being 


234  II  THESSALONIANS  2.  2 

3  unto  him  ;  to  the  end  that  ye  be  not  quickly  shaken 
from  your  mind,  nor  yet  be  troubled,  either  by  spirit,  or 
by  word,  or  by  epistle  as  from  us,  as  that  the  day  of  the 

caught  up  in  the  clouds  to  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air  and  dwell 
with  Him  for  ever  after  (cf.  v.  iox.  In  Matt.  xxiv.  31  Christ  says, 
'they  shall  gather  together  his  elect  from  the  four  winds.' 
Probably  the  early  Christians  understood  these  predictions  quite 
literally.  In  the  present  day  few  will  be  ready  to  believe  in  the 
actual  levitation  of  human  bodies  and  collection  of  a  multitude 
of  living  men  and  women  in  the  vapour  that  floats  half  a  mile 
or  so  above  the  ground  when  the  barometer  has  fallen.  But  if  this 
physical  scene  is  not  to  be  reasonably  expected,  and  the  language 
of  Christ  on  the  subject  is  to  be  accepted  in  his  customary 
parabolic  sense,  as  when  he  spoke  of  faith  removing  a  fig-tree, 
the  essential  idea  is  unaffected.  This  is  the  promise  that  Christ's 
people  shall  meet  him  and  dwell  with  him  for  ever. 

2.  to  the  end  that:  a  clause  pointing  forward.  The  object 
arrived  at  is  stated  in  this  verse,  the  means  by  which  that  object 
is  to  be  obtained  in  the  verses  that  follow.  Thus  the  Apostle  writes, 
1  In  order  that  ye  be  not  quickly  troubled  ...  let  no  man  beguile 
you,1  &c. 

from  your  mind:  from  3-our  normal  state  of  mind,  your 
settled  convictions  ;  not  '  in  mind  '  as  in  the  A.  V. 

nor  yet . . .  troubled.  The  two  words  ' shaken '  and  '  troubled' 
point  to  two  possible  effects  of  the  disturbing  influence,  the  first 
unsettling  the  ideas  and  mental  views  of  the  Thessalonians,  the 
second  causing  them  distress.  Three  possible  disturbing  influences 
are  contemplated  by  the  Apostle — spirit,  word,  epistle. 

spirit:  not  necessarily  theHoly  Spirit  as  Mr.Garrod  and  others 
assert.  The  reference  would  be  to  some  inspired  utterance,  what 
was  called  a  '  prophecy '  in  the  primitive  church.  But  the  in- 
definiteness  of  the  word  '  spirit '  standing  here  boldly  by  itself 
points  to  the  wide,  general  sense  of  the  word.  Christians  and 
Jews  both  believed  in  spirits  influencing  men,  and  no  doubt  the 
Thessalonians  were  familiar  with  the  Greek  notion  of  demons. 
Even  if  the  influence  were  attributed  by  the  church  to  the  Spirit 
of  God,  when  it  was  seen  to  be  erroneous  or  hurtful  in  character 
Paul  would  ascribe  it  to  some  mischievous  spirit  (cf.  '  a  lying 
spirit,'  1  Kings  xxii.  23).  He  leaves  the  nature  and  character  of 
the  source  open  by  simply  saying  '  spirit/  a  word  which  may  be 
taken  here  generically. 

word:  a  vocal  utterance,  as  distinguished  from  the  'epistle,' 
introduced  as  a  third  possibility.  This  may  be  taken  separately, 
or  joined  to  the  clause  that  follows.  In  the  latter  case,  the  word 
as  well  as  the  epistle  would  be  ascribed  to  the  Apostle,  and  here 


II  THESSALONIANS   2.  2  235 

the  idea  would  be  that  some  officious  person  may  have  brought 
a  report  of  what  he  asserted  Paul  had  said  and  thereby  disturbed 
the  minds  of  the  Thessalonians.  This  seems  the  probable  meaning, 
since  after  the  reference  to  a  prophetic  message  received  by 
inspiration  it  is  difficult  to  think  what  word — clearly  distinguished 
from  such  a  message  — could  have  weight  enough  to  upset  the 
church  unless  it  were  attached  to  apostolic  authority.  It  is 
conceivable  that  Paul  may  have  intended  to  refer  to  some  tra- 
ditional saying  of  Christ,  or  perhaps  to  some  utterance  of  one  of 
the  older  apostles.  But  in  that  case  it  is  probable  that  he  would 
have  described  the  source  of  the  word  as  he  proceeds  to  describe 
the  reputed  source  of  the  Epistle. 

epistle  as  from.  113.  Is  Paul  referring  (V  to  i  Thessalonians, 
or  (2)  to  a  known  forged  epistle,  or  (3^1  to  the  possibility  of 
some  epistle  reporting  ideas  ascribed  to  Paul  having  been  received 
at  Thessalonica  ?  In  favour  of  ( i)  it  has  been  remarked  that  the 
earlier  Epistle  refers  to  Christ  coming  suddenly  'as  a  thief  in 
the  night'  (i  Thess.  v.  2).  Moreover  it  seems  highly  improbable 
that  anybody  would  be  forging  a  letter  in  the  Apostle's  name  at 
this  early  date.  Such  a  letter  as  is  here  suggested  would  not  help 
the  cause  of  the  Judaizers,  the  only  people  in  the  early  church 
whom  we  know  to  be  meddlers  in  the  Apostle's  work.  That  there 
were  men  who  wished  so  strongly  to  make  out  that  Paul  taught 
the  immediate  advent  of  Christ  that  they  forged  a  letter  in  his 
name  with  that  object  in  view  is  a  conception  of  the  history  wholly 
unsupported  by  evidence  from  any  other  quarter,  and  in  itself 
perplexing,  indeed  inexplicable.  On  the  other  hand,  the  phrase 
before  us  cannot  be  explained  if  the  Apostle  is  only  referring  to  his 
previous  Epistle.  The  word  ;  as '  is  an  insuperable  difficulty  to  that 
view.  Why  should  Paul  write  'an  epistle  as  from  us'  if  he  meant 
his  own  Epistle?  Such  language  must  have  suggested  a  different 
meaning  to  the  readers.  And  even  apart  from  the  word  '  as'  the 
phrase  is  not  what  one  would  expect.  We  know  how  Paul  did 
refer  to  previous  letters,  e.  g.  in  writing  to  the  Corinthians  he  says 
with  reference  to  an  earlier  letter,  *  I  wrote  unto  you  in  my  epistle ' 
(1  Cor.  v.  9),  a  perfectly  clear,  intelligible  phrase,  quite  different 
from  what  we  have  here.  Nevertheless  there  is  some  difficulty 
in  accepting  (2) — the  notion  of  a  known  forged  epistle.  Surely  the 
Apostle  would  not  have  joined  this  to  a  prophetic  utterance  and 
a  reported  saying  (represented  by  'spirit'  and  'word')  as  though 
all  three  means  of  influence  were  in  some  respects  similar.  That 
is  too  mild  a  treatment  for  a  forgery.  We  should  have  looked  for 
indignant  denunciation  of  the  impudent  crime.  Accordingly  we 
come  to  (3) — the  idea  that  the  Apostle  imagines  that  some  letter  pur- 
porting to  convey  his  teaching  may  have  reached  the  Thessalonians. 
The  mention  of  three  possible  influences  implies  that  Paul  does 
not  know  which  of  them  has  been  the  cause  of  the  present  trouble 


236  II  THESSALONIANS  2.  3 

Lord  is  now  present ;  let  no  man  beguile  you  in  any 
wise  :  for  //  will  not  be,  except  the  falling  away  come 
first,  and  the  man  of  sin  be  revealed,  the  son  of  perdition, 


at  Thessalonica.  He  merely  surmises  that  it  may  have  been  some 
such  influence  as  he  specifies.  Schmiedel  points  out  that  the  use 
of  the  same  preposition  (din)  in  all  three  eases  and  before  the 
pronoun  'us'  docs  not  suit  the  supposition  that  the  authorship  of 
the  letter  was  ascribed  to  Paul.  To  preserve  the  identity  of 
phrase  we  might  read  '  either  by  spirit,  or  by  word,  or  by  epistle, 
as  by  us.'  This  might  mean  that  the  Thessalonians  should  not  be 
affected  by  a  prophecy,  a  word  of  report,  or  a  letter,  as  they  would 
be  affected  by  the  Apostle  himself. 

now  present:  more  accurate  than  the  expression  of  the  A.  V. 
'at  hand.' 

3.  let  no  nian  beg"uile  yon,  Sec.  It  has  been  said  that  this 
Epistle  shews  a  change  of  mind  in  the  Apostle  compared  with  his 
views  in  the  earlier  letter.  But  he  does  not  contradict  himself. 
In  1  Thessalonians  he  had  spoken  of  the  sudden  coming  of  Christ, 
not  of  its  being  immediate.  Still  the  tone  of  the  earlier  Epistle 
suggested  the  nearness  of  the  advent,  which  the  later  Epistle 
explicitly  denies.  We  should  rather  say  that  there  is  a  develop- 
ment of  thought.  The  Apostle  had  declared  the  suddenness  without 
going  further  ;  now  he  advances  to  fuller  details.  It  is  likely  that 
the  subject  had  occupied  his  thoughts  in  the  interval  with  the 
result  that  he  had  reached  the  definite  conclusions  here  stated. 

the  falling  away.  The  definite  article,  appearing  in  the  R.V., 
points  to  some  expected  apostas\'  of  which  Paul  knew  the  Thessa- 
lonians had  heard.  Dr.  Denney  refers  the  phrase  to  the  Jews 
because  there  is  no  mention  of  the  Christians  throughout  the 
passage,  treating  it  as  their  rejection  of  Christ.  But  that  was 
already  an  accomplished  fact.  Most  commentators  take  it  for 
a  future  Christian  defection  from  the  faith.  The  expectation  of 
this  might  be  based  on  our  Lord's  prediction  that  many  shall  be 
led  astray  by  false  prophets  and  that  '  the  love  of  the  many  shall 
wax  cold'  (Matt.  xxiv.  12). 

the  man  of  sin:  a  Hebraism  meaning  'the  sinful  man.'  Cf. 
'man  of  Belial'  (1  Sam.  xxv.  25).  The  article  indicates  either 
(1)  'the  pre-eminently  sinful  man,'  or  (2)  some  known  person. 
Verse  5  suggests  the  latter  interpretation. 

sin.  The  margin  of  the  R.V.  substitutes  'lawlessness,' 
following  the  Vatican  and  Sinaitic  MSS.  and  other  good  authorities, 
probably  the  correct  reading.  This  word  occurs  later,  at  verse  7. 
Thus  ;  the  mystery  of  lawlessness  '  must  be  identified  with  '  the 
man  oflawlcssncss.' 


II  THESSALONIANS  2.  4  237 

he    that   opposeth    and     exalteth    himself   against    all  4 
that  is   called  God  or  that   is  worshipped;  so  that  he 
sitteth  in  the  temple  of  God,  setting  himself  forth  as  God. 

revealed:  implying  that  he  already  exists,  and  may  even  be 
present  ;  but  he  is  hidden  from  view,  or  his  true  nature  and 
character  are  not  yet  known.  The  coming  revelation,  i.  e.  the 
manifestation  and  declaration  of  the  man  of  iniquity,  corresponds 
to  the  revelation  of  Christ  previously  mentioned  (i.  7),  which  it  is 
to  precede. 

the  son  of  perdition :  a  Hebraism  meaning  '  the  lost  and 
ruined  person,  one  who  is  going  to  perdition.'  The  expression 
was  applied  by  Christ  to  Judas  Iscariot  in  John  xvii.  12.  Cf.  'son 
of  death  '  {2  Sam.  xii.  5,  marg.),  for  one  doomed  to  die. 

4.  he  that  opposeth  :  the  negative  attitude  indicated  first. 

exalteth  himself.  Cf.  Dan.  xi.  36,  l  And  the  king  shall  do 
according  to  his  will ;  and  he  shall  exalt  himself,  and  magnify 
himself  above  every  god,  and  shall  speak  marvellous  things  against 
the  God  of  gods'  ;  a  passage  which  with  its  context  seems  to  have 
been  in  the  Apostle's  mind.  Thus  Daniel  is  at  the  root  of  Paul's 
apocalypse,  as  he  is  at  the  root  of  nearly  every  other  apocalypse. 
In  Daniel  the  reference  is  to  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  insolent 
tyrant  who  persecuted  the  Jews  and  insulted  their  religion. 

all  that  is  called  God :  corresponding  to  '  every  god '  in  the 
Daniel  passage  just  cited.  This  must  mean  an  opposition  to 
religion,  not  merely  to  Christianity. 

he  sitteth.  The  words  '  as  God  '  in  the  A.  V.  disappear  from 
the  text  in  the  R.  V.,  not  being  found  in  the  best  MSS.  and 
versions. 

the  temple  of  God.  The  word  for  temple  (naos)  is  that 
which  represents  the  inner  shrine,  with  the  Jews  the  Holy  Place, 
not  the  whole  temple  enclosure  (called  hieron).  Three  possible 
applications  of  the  phrase  in  this  place  have  been  suggested  : 
(1)  The  Jews'  temple  at  Jerusalem;  (2)  the  Christian  church; 
(3)  a  pagan  centre  of  worship.  (3)  is  suggested  in  support  of  the 
view  that  '  the  man  of  iniquity '  is  the  Roman  emperor  assuming 
to  be  a  god  and  claiming  worship.  But  in  that  case  would  Paul 
write  '  the  temple,'  and  add  the  clause  'of  God'?  (2)  has  been 
supported  by  an  appeal  to  Paul's  conception  of  the  church,  as 
when  he  writes,  'Ye  are  a  temple  of  God1  (1  Cor.  iii.  16).  But 
the  notion  of  the  man  of  lawlessness  sitting  in  this  temple  is 
somewhat  incongruous.  We  seem  therefore  to  be  driven  back 
to  (1),  the  view  taken  by  Irenaeus  in  the  2nd  century  (Hcer.  v. 
30.  4),  an  interpretation  which  is  adopted  by  those  who  regard 
the  mysterious  personage  to  represent  the  Jews  in  their  anti- 
Christian  attitude.     It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  phrase  ma}'  be 


?38  II  THESSALONIANS   2.   ;,  6 

5  Remember  ye  not,  that,  when  I  was  yet  with  you,  I  told 

6  you  these  things  ?  And  now  ye  know  that  which  restrain- 
ed, to  the  end  that  he  may  be  revealed  in  his  own  season. 


used  in  a  wide  allegorical  sense,  being,  as  Mr.  Garrod  suggests, *  a 
forcible  method  of  shewing  that  the  man  of  sin  will  by  his  own 
deliberate  action  usurp  the  dignity  and  prerogative  of  God.' 
About  15  years  before  this  (a.  d.  40")  the  Emperor  Caligula  had 
ordered  his  statue  to  be  set  up  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  ;  he 
died  before  his  command  was  executed  vJosephus,  Antiq.  xviii.  8). 
setting-  himself  forth,  as  God.  This  well  describes  the 
action  of  the  Roman  emperors  in  accepting  and  even  demanding 
Divine  honours. 

5.  If  this  verse  is  to  be  taken  literallj'  Paul  is  not  giving  the 
Thessalonians  any  fresh  information.  Probably,  however,  he 
means  that  he  had  told  them  generally  about  these  things  ;  now 
he  is  entering  more  into  detail.  Possibly  the  division  here 
indicates  that,  while  hitherto  he  has  recapitulated  his  personal 
teaching,  what  follows  contains  more  fresh  instruction.  This  verse 
will  account  in  part  for  the  vagueness  of  the  Apostle's  language. 
He  assumes  that  his  readers  will  understand  the  allusion  which 
in  writing  he  couches  in  vague  terms,  perhaps  for  fear  of  the 
letter  falling  into  the  hands  of  enemies.  But  this  very  fact  of  the 
mutual  understanding  between  writer  and  readers  must  make  us 
cautious  with  our  attempts  at  explanations  and  lead  us  not  to  be 
surprised  if  the  riddle  may  seem  to  us  insoluble.  We  have  not 
the  key  to  the  cypher  with  which  the  Thessalonians  had  been 
supplied. 

6.  ye  know.  Again  the  reference  is  to  what  had  passed 
between  the  Apostle  and  the  Thessalonians  during  his  stay  in 
their  city. 

that  which  restraineth :  a  neuter  form  in  the  Greek,  indicat- 
ing any  restraining  influence,  in  the  most  indefinite  way.  In  the 
next  verse  Paul  writes  of  '  one  that  restraineth,'  and  thus  indicates 
that  the  restraining  influence  is  personal.  He  uses  the  same  verb 
in  both  cases,  a  fact  that  was  obscured  in  the  A.  V.  by  rendering 
the  word  '  withholdeth  '  in  verse  6  and  '  letteth  '  in  verse  7.  This 
influence  or  person  is  restraining  the  man  of  lawlessness  so  that 
as  yet  he  cannot  work  his  will. 

that  he  may  be  revealed :  i.  e.  the  man  of  lawlessness,  who 
is  not  yet  seen  because  repressed  by  the  restraining  power.  This 
mysterious  being  will  be  revealed  when  the  restraining  influence 
is  removed. 

his  own  season :  the  time  of  the  man  of  lawlessness,  when 
he  will  have  free  range  and  scope  to  work  his  evil  will.     The 


II  THESSALONIANS  2.  7  239 

For  the  mystery  of  lawlessness  doth  already  work  :  only  7 
there  is  one  that  restrained!  now,  until  he  be  taken  out  of 


idea  is  that  some  such  season  is  fixed  in  the  order  and  arrange- 
ment of  things,  so  that  when  it  arrives  the  outbreak  will  appear. 
It  is  one  of  the  'times  and  seasons'  referred  to  in  i  Thess.  v.  i. 
The  date  of  it  cannot  be  given  ;  the  Apostle  does  not  know  that. 
Even  Jesus  declared  that  his  knowledge  did  not  extend  to  a 
definite  date  in  the  future  (cf.  Mark  xiii.  32).  Prophecy  fore- 
shadows the  future  in  indicating  the  development  of"  principles 
and  their  conditional  or  inevitable  consequences,  but  it  does  not 
pre-date  the  almanack  and  fill  in  the  future  at  fixed  periods.  It 
predicts  what  is  to  occur  in  time  ;  it  does  not  define  and  limit 
time  itself. 

7.  mystery.  This  word  is  always  used  in  the  N.  T.  for  what  has 
been  hidden,  but  is  subsequently  revealed  ;  never  for  that  which 
cannot  be  understood,  in  our  modern  sense  of  the  term.  Thus 
Paul  writes,  'Behold,  I  tell  you  a  mystery'  (x  Cor.  xv.  51),  and 
then  proceeds  to  make  a  declaration  about  the  resurrection, 
declaring  what  had  previously  been  hidden.  A  nvystery  is  a 
revelation.  Here  the  word  applies  to  the  restrained  power  of 
wickedness,  still  hidden,  but  ultimately  to  be  revealed.  In  view 
of  that  coming  revelation,  and  not  because  it  is  unintelligible,  in 
our  sense  of  the  word  '  n^'std-Jous,1  it  is  called  a  mystery.  Thus 
this  is  another  name  for  the  man  of  lawlessness,  or  perhaps  it 
represents  his  power  and  his  doings,  which  of  course  will  be  made 
evident  when  he  is  unmasked. 

doth  already  work.  Though  the  revelation,  the  unmasking 
and  manifestation,  is  future,  this  evil  power  is  even  now  at  work, 
undiscovered  and  unrecognized,  or  at  all  events  not  seen  in  its 
naked  wickedness. 

one  that  restraineth :  a  more  definite  description  of  the 
restraining  influence  mentioned  in  the  previous  verse,  now  seen 
to  be  personal.  The  word  '  let '  in  the  A.  V.  is  there  used  in  an 
an  old  English  sense  now  obsolete,  as  equivalent  to  '  hinder '  or 
'  restrain.'     Thus  we  have  it  in  Shakespeare  : — 

'  I'll  make  a  ghost  of  him  that  lets  me'  {Hamlet,  Act  i.  Sc.  4); 

and  in  Bacon  :  '  But  there  must  be  no  alleys  with  hedges  .  .  .  for 
letting  your  prospect  upon  this  fair  hedge  from  the  green '  (Essay, 
lxvi). 

There  is  some  difficulty  in  the  construction  of  the  whole  sen- 
tence. The  Revisers  make  good  sense  by  inserting  the  words 
•  there  is '  before  '  one  that  restraineth,'  their  italics  shewing  that 
these  words  are  not  in  the  original.     But  though  the  verb  '  to  be ' 


240  II  THESSALONIANS   2.  8 

the  way.     And  then  shall  be  revealed  the  lawless  one, 
whom  the  Lord  Jesus  shall  slay  with  the  breath  of  his 

must  often  be  supplied  when  it  can  serve  as  a  simple  copula,  here 
it  appears  as  the  predicate  and  even  as  the  most  emphatic  word 
in  the  sentence,  which  is  thus  made  to  assert  the  existence  of  the 
lawless  one.  If  Paul  had  meant  that,  it  is  probable  that  he  would 
have  used  the  word  himself.  This  difficulty  is  avoided  in  the 
A.  V.,  but  by  supplying  other  words  not  in  the  Greek,  viz.  'only 
he  who  now  letteth,  will  let,''  &c. — 'will  let'  being  added  by  the 
translators.  Any  such  intrusion  of  foreign  elements  is  escaped 
by  a  third  rendering,  that  suggested  in  the  margin  of  the  R.  V., 
viz.  'only  until  he  that  now  restraineth  be  taken,'  &c,  i.e.  the 
mystery  of  lawlessness  is  already  working  in  an  underground 
fashion,  under  restraint.  But  this  malignant  activit}'  is  only  to 
continue  till  the  restraining  influence  is  removed  ;  for  no  sooner 
will  that  happen  than  the  wicked  one  being  revealed,  swift 
destruction  will  fall  upon  him,  as  the  next  verse  declares. 
8.  And  then :  when  the  restraining  power  is  removed. 

revealed :  the  unveiling,  or  unmasking  mentioned  in  verse  3. 

the  lawless  one :  evidently  the  same  as  •  the  man  of  lawless- 
ness' (verse  3).  In  the  Greek  the  same  root  word  is  used  in  the  three 
places  where  different  words  obscure  the  meaning  in  the  A.  V.  :  — 

The  A.V.  The  Greek. 

1.  Man  of  sin.  1.  Man   of  lawlessness   (correct 

text). 

2.  Mystery  of  iniquity.  2.  Mystery  of  lawlessness. 

3.  That  lawless.  3.  Lawless  one. 

the  Lord  Jesus.  The  A.  V.  has  only  '  the  Lord.'  The  R.  V. 
adds  'Jesus'  on  important  documentary  authority,  though  the 
good  MSS.  are  divided  as  to  the  question  of  retaining  or  omitting 
the  word.  The  Revisers  have  followed  Tischendorf  and  other 
critics  of  the  text  in  inserting  it.  Thus,  while  the  ambiguity  of 
the  word  '  Lord  '  might  have  left  us  in  doubt  whether  God  or 
Christ  were  intended,  the  admission  of  this  correction  settles  the 
point.  It  is  quite  in  accordance  with  N.  T.  teaching,  and  with 
Paul's  ideas  in  particular,  that  the  coming  of  Christ  should  be 
associated  with  wrath  and  vengeance.  John  the  Baptist  sa3's. 
1  the  chaff  he  will  burn  up  with  unquenchable  fire'  (Matt.  iii.  12)  ; 
Jesus  refers  to  the  punishment  he  will  inflict  in  his  parables  of 
judgement  (Matt.  xxiv.  51,  xxv.  30,  46) ;  and  Paul  in  this  very 
Epistle  describes  him  as  coming  'with  the  angels  of  his  power  in 
flaming  fire,  rendering  vengeance,'  &c.  (i.  7,  8\ 

slay:  in  the  best  MSS.  and  therefore  substituted  for 
'consume'  (A. VA 


II  THESSALONIANS   2.  9,10  241 

mouth,  and  bring  to  nought  by  the  manifestation  of  his 
coming  ;  even   he,    whose   coming   is   according   to    the   9 
working  of  Satan  with  all  power  and   signs   and  lying 
wonders,  and  with  all  deceit  of  unrighteousness  for  them  10 
that  are  perishing ;  because  they  received  not  the  love 

with  the  breath  of  his  mouth.  The  Greek  word  (pneuma) 
rendered  '  breath  '  here  in  the  R.  V.  is  that  which  usually  stands 
for  i  spirit'  (as  in  the  A.  V.  here).  But  the  meaning  'breath' 
best  suits  the  context,  and  the  whole  phrase  seems  to  be  an  echo 
of  Isa.  xi.  4,  '  with  the  breath  of  his  lips  shall  he  slay  the 
wicked,'  where  the  same  Greek  word  occurs,  and  plainly  means 
•breath.'  The  same  expression  occurs  in  Ps.  xxxiii.  6,  '  By  the 
word  of  the  Lord  were  the  heavens  made  ;  and  all  the  host  of 
them  by  the  breath  of  his  mouth.'  The  Apostle  may  be  referring 
to  a  word  of  command  for  the  destruction  of  '  the  lawless  one,' 
and  the  analogy  of  the  passage  in  the  Psalms  would  suggest  that 
idea.  On  the  other  hand,  the  passage  from  Isaiah,  and  the  sub- 
sequent description  of  the  destruction  to  be  brought  about  by  the 
'  manifestation  of  his  coming.' or  presence,  point  to  a  metaphorical 
idea  of  more  direct  influence,  as  though  the  very  breathing  of 
Christ  on  the  great  enemy  would  be  sufficient  to  slay  him. 

manifestation:  not  '  brightness'  as  in  the  A.  V.  The  Greek 
word  (epiphaneia)  is  the  original  of  our  word  '  Epiphany.' 

9.  whose  coming1.  The  same  word  (paronsia)  is  here  used  for 
the  '  coming'  or  '  presence  '  of  the  lawless  one  that  is  used  for  the 
1  coming '  or  '  presence  '  of  Christ  in  other  parts  of  the  Epistle. 

according'  to  the  working  of  Satan :  i.  e.  he  acts  as  Satan 
would  act,  in  agreement  with  Satan's  ways. 

power  .  .  .  signs  .  .  .  wonders  :  the  three  N.  T.  words  for 
what  we  call  miracles.  Thus  we  have  '  he  could  there  do  no 
mighty  work*  (Mark  vi.  5,  the  Greek  word  dunamis,  rendered 
'  mighty  work,'  being  the  same  that  is  here  translated  '  power  ')  ; 
'Except  ye  see  signs  and  wonders,  ye  will  in  no  wise  believe'  (John 
\v.  48).  But  here,  since  the  word  '  power '  is  in  the  singular  while 
the  other  two  words  are  in  the  plural,  the  suggestion  is  that  a 
Satanic  power  is  causing  the  signs  and  wonders. 

lying :  not  mere  conjuror's  illusions,  but  real  miracles  that 
mislead. 

10.  deceit  of  unrighteousness  :  a  Hebraism,  meaning  <  wicked 
deceit.' 

them  that  are  perishing :  as  contrasted  with  those  who 
are  being  saved,  the  people  on  the  broad  road  that  leads  to 
destruction. 

because  they  received  not,  &c. :  indicating  that  the  perishing 

(9)  R 


242  II  THESSALONIANS  2.  11,12 

11  of  the  truth,  that  they  might  be  saved.  And  for  this 
cause  God  sendeth  them  a  working   of  error,  that  they 

13  should  believe  a  lie :  that  they  all  might  be  judged  who 
believed  not  the  truth,  but  had  pleasure  in  unright- 
eousness. 


of  these  people  is  due  to  their  own  fault  in  refusing  to  cherish  love 
for  the  truth.     The}-  would  have  been  saved  if  they  had  done  so. 

the  love  of  the  truth.  This  may  mean  either  (r)  the  love  of 
truth  in  general,  or  (2)  the  love  of  the  specific  truth  contained 
in  the  teaching  of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  the  truths  of  the 
Christian  faith.  The  latter  meaning  is  most  in  accordance  with 
Paul's  use  of  the  word,  e.  g.  '  who  did  hinder  you  that  ye  should 
not  obey  the  truth?'  (Gal.  v.  7),  where  the  context  shews  that 
'  the  truth'  stands  for  the  Christian  teaching  as  opposed  to  Judaism 
(cf.  2  Cor.  iv.  2,  xiii.  8;.  Nevertheless  perhaps  the  first  meaning — 
the  love  of  truth  in  general — should  be  preferred  here  because 
(a)  it  is  contrasted  with  belief  in  a  lie  ^ verse  11),  and  (b)  it  seems 
to  be  referred  to  later  when  we  read  of  belief  of  the  truth  (verse 
13,  see  note).  The  idea  is  not  that  these  people  are  lost  because 
they  have  never  heard  of  this  truth  of  the  gospel,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  heathen  world,  nor  because  they  are  unable  to  understand 
it  or  believe  in  it,  but  because  they  do  not  love  truth  and  therefore 
come  to  reject  the  Christian  message.  Thus  the  cause  of  their  ruin 
is  moral,  not  intellectual. 

11.  for  this  cause :  i.e.  because  they  shewed  this  disposition 
of  aversion  to  the  truth. 

God  sendeth  them,  &c.  Two  points  must  be  noted  in  regard 
to  this  assertion  :  (1)  The  state  of  confusion  with  erroneous  ideas 
is  distinctly  described  as  coming  from  God  ;  (2)  this  is  so  because 
the  people  who  are  afflicted  with  it  have  first  of  all  deliberately 
shut  themselves  out  from  sympathy  with  the  Christian  truth.  We 
can  understand  this  better  if  we  translate  it  into  terms  of  natural 
law,  since  that  is  what  we  can  more  immediately  perceive,  while  at 
the  same  time  we  regard  it  as  the  expression  of  the  Divine  will. 
Those  people  who  harden  themselves  against  Christian  truth  will 
suffer  the  penalty  of  their  perverse  conduct  by  becoming  the 
victims  of  delusion.  The  specific  delusion  here  suggested  is  faith 
in  the  evil  power  called  '  the  man  of  lawlessness '  and  a  credulous 
acceptance  of  his  'lying  wonders.' 

12.  judged:  not  'damned,'  as  in  the  A.  V.  ;  the  word  only 
describes  the  process  of  judgement.  Still  in  the  N.  T.  it  is 
generally  used  where  an  adverse  judgement,  a  condemnation, 
is  implied.     Plainly  that  is  so  here. 

who  believed  not  the  truth.     The  unbelievers  are  to  be 


II  THESSALONIANS  2.  12  243 

condemned,  but  not  simply  for  unbelief;  the  cause  of  that  unbelief, 
lias  been  clearly  indicated  already,  and  it  is  again  described  in  the 
clause  that  follows,  as  in  itself  morally  culpable.  We  are  not  to 
infer  from  this  that  all  unbelief  flows  from  a  morally  culpable 
source.  The  Apostle  is  only  referring  to  the  doom  of  the  victims 
of  the  delusion  introduced  by  '  the  man  of  lawlessness.' 

the  truth.  The  word  truth  must  be  taken  generally  through- 
out the  passage  for  that  which  is  true.  Still  the  Apostle  has  the 
message  of  the  gospel  in  mind,  and  to  the  general  sense  of  the  word 
truth  must  be  added  here  the  mental  associations  of  the  special 
Christian  truth. 

pleasure  in  unrighteousness :  the  correlative  of  not  re- 
ceiving the  love  of  the  truth  ;  a  further  confirmation  of  the  idea  that 
the  unbelief  and  the  state  of  delusion  in  question  spring  from 
culpably  moral  sources.  The  phrases  of  this  sentence  are  dis- 
tinctly balanced:  those  'who  believed  not  the  truth'  are  the 
people  who  '  had  pleasure  in  unrighteousness.' 

Note. — This  is  one  of  the  most  perplexing  passages  in  the  N.  T. 
A  volume  might  be  written  on  the  history  of  the  views  that  have 
been  advocated  concerning  it.  The  following  are  the  most 
conspicuous,  turning  chiefly  on  the  identification  of  'the  man 
of  sin.'  (1)  Some  personage  in  history  prophetically  indicated — 
Mahomet,  according  to  the  Greek  church  ;  the  Pope,  according  to 
the  Preface  of  the  A.  V.  (in  1611);  Napoleon;  modern  Atheism,  &c. 
(2)  Some  contemporary  personage,  perhaps  Caligula,  if  Paul  was  re- 
ferring to  the  mad  emperor's  attempt  to  thrust  his  image  into  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  ;  or  Nero,  but  if  so  with  a  later  date  for  the 
Epistle  than  allows  it  to  be  written  by  Paul.  (3)  The  persecuting 
Jewish  authorities  personified  as  one  malignant  enemy.  This  view 
is  largely  advocated  in  the  present  day.  The  Jews  had  been  Paul's 
great  opponents  at  Thessalonica  and  they  were  the  instigators  of 
the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  that  city.  That  some  contem- 
porary power  or  person  is  intended  seems  clear  from  the  use 
of  the  present  tense  '  opposeth,1  'exalteth,'  'sitteth,' '  doth  already 
work  '  ;  the  same  applies  to  the  restraining  influence  which  *  now 
letteth.'  Thus  interpretations  of  the  first  kind  must  be  excluded, 
as  indeed  they  should  be  excluded  in  any  case,  because  it  is 
a  mistaken  view  of  prophecy  to  regard  it  as  '  history  written 
before  the  event,'  with  definite  references  to  distinct  human 
personages.  Further,  in  favour  of  the  third  view  we  have  the 
reference  to  the  temple  of  God.  This  would  seem  to  be  the 
Jerusalem  temple,  the  only  temple  Paul,  a  Jew,  could  so  describe ; 
and  the  Jewish  authorities  had  possession  of  it.  The  language 
is  suspiciously  strong  here,  and  the  phrase  '  setting  himself  forth 
as  God '  which  would  well  fit  a  Roman  emperor  could  not  be 
applied  literally  to  the  Jews.  Still  in  a  figurative  sense  Paul 
might  use  it  for  the  dogmatic  assumption  of  the  Jews  to  judge  and 

K    2 


244  II  THESSALONIANS  2.  12 

condemn  all  who  differed  from  them.  We  can  hardly  think  that 
he  would  write  so  strongly  to  denunciation  of  a  Roman  emperor, 
because  everywhere  else  he  treats  the  imperial  government  with 
respect  and  speaks  well  of  it.  Then  if  the  *  man  of  sin  '  represents 
the  Jewish  authorities,  the  'one  that  restraineth '  will  be  easily 
interpreted  as  the  Roman  government.  Again  and  again  Paul  was 
protected  by  the  civil  power  from  the  attacks  of  the  Jewish  mob, 
and  he  saw  in  this  government  the  authority  which  held  back  the 
malignity  of  persecuting  Jews.  Here  he  foresees  a  time  when 
that  restraint  will  be  removed.  It  did  not  happen  in  his  own 
lifetime,  but  it  came  about  in  the  revolt  of  Bar  Cochbar,  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  whose  temporal  overthrow  of  the  Roman 
government  in  Palestine  resulted  in  a  persecution  of  the  Christians 
of  that  district.  That  something  of  the  kind  must  happen  Paul 
felt  sure.  Nevertheless  this  interpretation  is  not  wholly  satisfac- 
tory. The  reference  to  miracles  wrought  by  the  power  of  Satan 
is  obscure.  Besides,  the  Apostle's  language  would  suit  one  definite 
person  better  than  the  personification  of  the  Jewish  authorities. 
The  origin  of  the  phraseology  is  to  be  found  in  the  Book  of  Daniel ; 
and  there  the  opponent  is  a  person,  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Pos- 
sibly the  Apostle  is  thinking  of  some  great  enemy  of  Christianity 
whom  he  expects  to  appear,  corresponding  to  the  '  Antichrist '  of 
John  and  later  writers,  if  '  Antichrist '  is  indeed  one  person.  But 
there  is  doubt  on  that  point,  for  John  seems  to  use  the  title  '  Anti- 
christ '  generically  for  any  violent  opposers  of  Christ  (cf.  1  John 
ii.  18,  22,  iv.  3).  The  use  of  the  present  tense,  and  in  particular 
the  expression  about  sitting  ;.n  the  temple,  do  not  well  suit  the 
conception  of  a  purely  ideal  apocalyptic  figure.  Some  more 
distinct  idea,  recognizable  by  the  Thessalonians  at  the  time,  seems 
to  be  indicated.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  the  third  interpretation 
given  above  seems  to  be  the  most  probable,  though  there  is 
considerable  doubt  on  the  question.  According  to  this  view  the 
passage  would  be  explained  as  follows  : — Do  not  be  deceived. 
Christ  will  not  come  yet.  First  there  will  be  a  falling  away  of 
some  of  the  Christians  ;  then  the  full  malignity  of  the  Jewish 
power  will  be  made  manifest.  It  is  very  haughty  and  insolent 
now,  claiming  the  temple  as  its  own  and  assuming  the  authority 
of  God ;  but  for  the  present  the  Roman  government  restrains  it. 
When  that  restraining  influence  is  removed  it  will  break  out  with 
full  violence.     But  then  Christ  will  come  and  destroy  it. 

If  it  is  asked,  Why  did  not  the  Apostle  write  more  plainly  ?  the 
answer  must  be  that  he  adopted  the  enigmatic  symbolism  of  the 
apocalyptic  style  for  the  same  reason  that  led  other  apocalyptic 
writers  to  use  it,  namely,  because  more  open  language  was 
dangerous.  The  Christians  at  Thessalonica  were  surrounded 
by  Jewish  enemies,  and  perhaps  watched  by  Jewish  spies. 
While   he  was  with  them   Paul  had  said   enough    to   make  his 


II  THESSALONIANS  2.  13  245 

But  we  are  bound  to  give  thanks  to   God  alway  for  13 
you,  brethren  beloved  of  the  Lord,  for  that  God  chose 

meaning  when  writing  this  letter  clear — for  he  here  refers  to  that 
earlier  teaching.  As  we  have  not  the  key  we  must  be  content  to 
leave  the  passage  in  some  obscurity.  After  all,  though  of  intense 
interest  to  the  Thessalonians,  it  is  not  of  much  importance  for  us 
in  the  present  day,  since  it  refers  to  events  which  now  lie  far 
back  in  the  primitive  history  of  the  church,  rather  than  to  those 
eternal  principles  which  we  prize  as  the  treasures  of  inspired 
Scripture. 

ii.  13-17.  Further  thanksgiving  and  exhortation.  Returning 
to  a  phrase  employed  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  Epistle  (i.  3),  the 
Apostle  again  declares  that  he  must  thank  God  for  choosing  the 
Thessalonians  and  calling  them  by  means  of  the  gospel.  He 
exhorts  them  to  steadfastness  in  accordance  with  the  truths  they 
have  received  from  him,  and  prays  that  Christ  and  God  may  cheer 
and  establish  them. 

13.  we:  an  emphatic  word  in  the  Greek  text,  implying  a  con- 
trastwith  others  previously  mentioned.  The  Greek  pronoun  wasnot 
given  in  the  parallel  passage  (i.  3)  as  it  was  not  usual  to  write 
it  except  for  emphasis,  and  this  fact  makes  the  insertion  of  it  here 
the  more  significant.  We  should  rather  have  expected  the 
emphasis  to  have  been  laid  on  the  word  '  you,'  contrasting  the 
redeemed  Thessalonians  with  the  abandoned  persons  just  described. 
But  we  must  understand  Paul  to  mean  that  as  to  himself  and  his 
companion  missionaries,  for  their  part,  they  have  good  grounds 
for  thankfulness,  while  the  miserable  people  of  whom  he  has  been 
writing  can  have  no  such  reasons  for  congratulating  themselves. 

beloved  of  the  Lord :  an  additional  description,  not  found  in 
the  earlier  passage  (i.  31),  contrasting  the  Thessalonians  with  the 
unhappy  people  on  whom  God  '  sendeth  an  error,'  though  it  is  to 
be  observed  that  the  difference  is  not  arbitrary,  since  if  those 
reprobates  seem  to  be  hardly  dealt  with  by  God  it  is  as  the  conse- 
quence of  their  own  fault  in  refusing  to  entertain  the  love  of  the 
truth — '  And  for  this  cause  God  sendeth  them  a  working  of  error ' 
(verse  11).  Conversely  we  must  not  set  down  God's  love  to  the 
Thessalonian  Christians  as  a  mark  of  partiality.  That  too  must 
have  had  its  selective  cause. 

chose.  This  choice  comes  previous  to  the  salvation  and  faith 
of  the  Thessalonians  in  which  it  issues.  Apart  from  a  mysterious 
theological  conception  of  '  election  '  there  is  a  plain  historical  fact 
which  illustrates  this  idea.  The  gospel  was  preached  effectually 
in  Thessalonica,  as  it  was  not  yet  preached  in  many  other  places, 
and  that  was  a  consequence  of  the  providential  ordering  of  events 
and  also  of  the  special  guidance  of  the  missionaries  by  the  Spirit  of 


246  II  THESSALONIANS   2.  14 

you  from  the  beginning  unto  salvation  in  sanctification  of 
14  the  Spirit  and  belief  of  the  truth:  whereunto  he  called 

God.  Paul  may  be  alluding  to  these  obvious  facts.  Still  he  goes 
behind  them  to  a  previous  Divine  purpose  and  action.  A  gloss 
which  has  crept  into  some  of  the  MSS.,  including  the  great 
Vatican  MS.,  probably  from  the  margin,  though  most  critics 
do  not  accept  it  as  part  of  the  original  text,  ma}7  serve  as  an 
admirable  explanation.  This  consists  of  the  addition  of  the  words 
'as  firstfruits.'  In  point  of  fact  that  is  what  the  Divine  choice  of 
the  Thessalonians  amounted  to.  They  were  chosen  thus  early  in 
the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  but  not  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
believers  who  would  come  in  later,  only  as  the  firstfruits  of 
a  large  harvest. 

from  the  beginning1:  i.e.  the  beginning  of  all  things,  when 
God  laid  out  His  plans  for  the  ordering  of  human  affairs.  Thus 
Christ  speaks  of  k  the  kingdom  prepared  for  you  from  the 
foundation  of  the  world'  (Matt.  xxv.  34)  and  Paul  writes,  *  He 
chose  us  in  him  before  the  foundation  of  the  world'  (Eph.  i.  4). 
For  the  phrase  cf.  Gen.   i.  1;    Prov.  viii.  22;   John  i.   1. 

unto  salvation:  as  the  end  to  be  attained,  not  yet  realized 
cf.  Rom.  xiii.  n). 

in :  or  '  by  means  of,'  a  common  Hebraism. 

sanctification.     See  note  on  1  Thess.  iv.  3. 

of  the  Spirit.  This  might  mean  ( 1)  the  human  spirit,  with 
reference  to  the  consecrating  and  purifying  of  the  spirits  of 
Christians,  as  implied  by  the  A.  V.  '  spirit.'  But  (2)  probably  the 
R.  V.  is  correct  in  printing  the  word  '  Spirit '  with  a  capital  '  S '  to 
suggest  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  usual  to  refer  to  sanctification 
as  brought  about  by  the  Spirit  of  God.  In  1  Pet.  i.  2  we  have 
this  phrase  'in  sanctification  of  the  Spirit 'associated  with  references 
to  God  the  Father  and  Jesus  Christ,  making  it  clear  that  there  the 
word  Spirit  stands  for  the  Holy  Spirit. 

the  truth.  There  is  no  article  before  the  word  '  truth '  in 
the  Greek,  which  shews  that  Paul  does  not  mean  the  specific 
truth  of  the  gospel,  but  truth  generally.  We  have  here  a 
manifest  contrast  between  the  Christians  who  have  'belief  of  the 
truth'  and  the  deceived  persons  referred  to  in  the  previous 
paragraph  who  are  subject  to  '  a  working  of  error,  that  they  should 
believe  a  lie'  (cf.  notes  on  verses  10  and  12). 

14.  whereunto :  to  the  salvation  just  referred  to. 

called :  subsequently  to  the  choosing  mentioned  in  the  previous 
verse.  Cf.  '  whom  he  foreordained,  them  he  also  called '  (Rom. 
viii.  30).  This  call  came  in  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  by  Paul 
and  his  companions.  There  is  no  hint  of  any  other  call,  any 
mvsterious  call  in  the  interior  life. 


II  THESSALONIANS  2.  15,  16  247 

you  through  our  gospel,  to  the  obtaining  of  the  glory  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.     So  then,  brethren,  stand  fast,  15 
and  hold  the  traditions  which  ye  were  taught,  whether 
by  word,  or  by  epistle  of  ours. 

Now  our   Lord  Jesus  Christ   himself,  and   God  our  16 

our  gospel :  the  gospel  we  preached. 

to  the  obtaining",  &c.  :  the  end  and  purpose  of  the  call,  as 
salvation  is  the  end  and  purpose  of  the  choosing.  Christians  are 
chosen  to  be  saved  and  called  to  share  in  the  glory  of  Christ. 

the  glory  of  our  I»ord  Jesus  Christ :  the  splendour  and 
honour  which  belong  to  Christ  now  that  he  is  exalted  to  the 
right  hand  of  God.  Christians  are  called  to  participate  in  this 
glory.  Cf.  'enter  thou  into  the  joy  of  thy  lord'  (Matt.  xxv.  21), 
where  the  faithful  servant's  reward  is  to  be  a  sharing  in  his 
Master's  joy. 

15.  So  then:  a  strong  phrase  in  the  Greek,  and  a  favourite 
one  with  Paul.  The  greatness  of  the  privileges  just  enumerated 
is  a  reason  for  steadfastness,  in  spite  of  the  discouragement  of 
present  trials. 

stand  fast.  The  Greek  is  simply  'stand/  meaning  'do  not 
be  moved  by  the  flood  of  adverse  influences/  'hold  your  ground 
in  spite  of  all  opposition.' 

traditions :  not  of  course  ancient  sayings  handed  down 
from  one  to  another,  in  our  modern  sense  of  the  word  '  tradition/ 
but  simply  '  what  has  been  conveyed  to  you.'  This  would  consist 
of  the  substance  of  the  gospel  truths  (cf.  1  Cor.  xi.  2).  A  verbal 
form  of  the  same  term  is  used  in  Paul's  words  introducing  his 
account  of  the  Lord's  Supper  :  '  I  received  of  the  Lord  that  which 
also  I  delivered  unto  3Tou '  (1  Cor.  xi.  23).  Mr.  Garrod  refers  the 
'traditions'  especially  to  teaching  about  the  Second  Advent, 
but  it  is  better  to  take  the  word  more  comprehensively  for  all 
the  apostolic  teaching  of  the  Thessalonians. 

taught.  There  had  been  more  than  preaching,  a  general 
proclamation  of  the  gospel.  The  missionaries  had  taken  pains  to 
instruct  their  converts  in  the  truths  of  the  faith. 

by  word :  oral  teaching  when  Paul  and  his  companions  Were 
at  Thessalonica. 

by  epistle :  a  letter  written  to  the  Thessalonians.  Probably 
the  reference  is  to  our  previous  Epistle. 

16.  himself.  This  word  holds  the  most  emphatic  position  in 
the  Greek  text.  Thus  it  lays  special  stress  on  the  appeal  to 
Christ  himself  to  help  his  people.  This  and  the  following  verses 
are  closely  parallel  to  1  Thess.  iii.  11-13  ;  but  there  the  words  run 
kNow  may  our  God  and  Father  himself,  and  our  Lord  Jesus/  &c, 


248  II  THESSALONIANS  2.   17 

Father  which   loved   us   and   gave  us   eternal  comfort 
7  and  good  hope  through  grace,  comfort  your  hearts  and 
stablish  them  in  every  good  work  and  word. 

and  the  word  'himself  is  in  the  same  emphatic  position  as 
here,  and  yet  it  refers  to  God  the  Father.  It  cannot  be  that 
the  changed  application  of  the  emphasis  is  meant  to  mark  a 
contrast  between  God  and  Christ,  that  in  the  First  Epistle  God 
Himself  more  especially,  and  in  the  Second  Christ  himself  more 
especially,  are  invoked.  A  comparison  between  the  two  passages 
shews  that,  whether  Christ  or  God  be  thus  emphatically  named, 
the  thought  is  of  heavenly  influences  coming  directly  down  ; 
no  mere  human  or  angelic  ministry  would  suffice.  Still  there 
must  be  a  reason  for  the  change  of  order,  especially  as  it  is 
contrary  to  the  custom  of  the  Apostle,  who  generally  writes 
the  name  of  Christ  after  that  of  God  when  he  introduces  both 
names.  Probably  the  previous  reference  to  the  coming  of  Christ 
and  his  glory  led  the  Apostle  to  name  Christ  first  here.  He 
follows  a  similar  order  in  the  benediction  at  the  end  of 
2  Corinthians,  a  benediction  that  has  been  adopted  by  the 
churches  in  preference  to  all  other  Scripture  forms  of  blessing  : 
'The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  love  of  God,'  &c. 
(2  Cor.  xiii.  14). 

which.:  i.e.  God  our  Father.  The  relative  pronoun  is  in  the 
singular,  and  therefore  does  not  stand  for  both  Christ  and  God  our 
Father. 

loved :  the  ground  of  all  that  follows. 

us:  the  Apostle  now  including  himself  with  his  readers. 

gave.  The  verb  is  in  the  aorist  tense,  referring  to  a 
specific  act  in  the  past.  This  must  be  the  gift  of  grace  in  the 
very  institution  of  the  gospel  by  the  sending  of  Christ  with  all 
its  consequent  blessings.  That  was  done  once  for  all ;  the  gift 
was  then  made,  though  the  individual  reception  of  it  is  a  matter 
of  time  and  is  repeated  again  and  again. 

eternal  comfort:  better  than  'everlasting  consolation'  as 
in  the  A.  V.,  for  the  word  rendered  '  comfort '  stands  for  general 
cheering  and  encouragement,  and  not  only  the  relief  of  sorrow 
(cf.  note  on  1  Thess.  iii.  2). 

good.  Grimm  gives  this  passage  as  an  instance  of  the  Greek 
word  (agathos)  rendered  'good,'  meaning  'pleasant,  agreeable, 
joyful,  happy.'     Cf.  Titus  ii.  r3,  'the  blessed  hope.' 

through    grace:    to    be   connected   with    the   verb    'gave.' 
It  was  by  His  grace  that  God  gave  these  rich  gifts. 
17.  comfort.     Cf.  note  on  1  Thess.  iii.  2. 

hearts:  the  inner  life  generally,  thought,  feeling,  and  will, 
according  to  the  Hebrew  idiom. 


II  THESSALONIANS   3.  1-3  249 

Finally,  brethren,  pray  for  us,  that  the  word  of  the  3 
Lord  may  run  and  be  glorified,  even  as  also  it  is  with  you  ; 
and  that  we  may  be  delivered  from  unreasonable  and  2 
evil  men  ;  for  all  have  not  faith.    But  the  Lord  is  faithful,  3 


iii.  1-5.  Prayer  and  confidence.  The  Apostle  requests  the 
prayers  of  his  readers  for  the  progress  of  his  missionary  work 
and  his  deliverance  from  vexatious  opponents.  The  Lord  being 
faithful  will  establish  and  preserve  them.  Paul  is  confident  that 
the  Thessalonians  will  obey  his  directions;  he  prays  that  they 
may  love  God,  and  patiently  wait  for  Christ. 

1.  Finally.     See  note  on  1  Thess.  iv.  1. 
pray  for  us.     Cf.  1  Thess.  v.  25. 

the  word  of  the  Lord.     See  note  on  1  Thess.  i.  8. 
the  Lord:  Jesus  Christ.     The  title  is  often  expressly  given 
to    Jesus   Christ    where   he    is   named   in   these    Epistles    (e.  g. 

1  Thess.  i.    1,  3,   ii.    15,  19,  iii.    11,  13,    iv.    1,  2,  v.    9,  23,  28; 

2  Thess.  i.  1,  2,  7,  8,  12,  ii.  1,  8,  16,  iii.  6,  12,  i8\  and  sometimes 
evidently  intended  to  apply  to  him  where  it  stands  alone,  as  where 
we  read  of  being  'imitators  .  .  .  of  the  Lord'  (1  Thess.  i.  6),  'the 
coming  of  the  Lord  '  (iv.  15).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  certainly 
applied  to  God  the  Father  anywhere  in  these  Epistles. 

run :  make  rapid  progress  by  means  of  swift  and  unhindered 
evangelizing  (cf.  Ps.  cxlvii.  15). 

be  glorified :  by  proving  its  power  and  grace ;  cf .  '  they  were 
glad,  and  glorified  the  word  of  God '  (Acts  xiii.  48). 

2.  unreasonable  and  evil  men.  If  this  Epistle  were  written 
later,  in  the  period  when  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was 
written,  we  might  take  the  people  here  referred  to  for  the 
Judaizing  Christians  who  sheltered  under  the  name  of  James, 
and  became  the  jealous  opponents  of  Paul's  liberalism.  But 
there  is  no  indication  that  these  men  were  molesting  the  Apostle 
in  Greece  so  early  as  this.  Probably  he  means  the  Jews  who  did 
not  accept  Christianity  at  all.  Both  in  Macedonia  and  at  Corinth 
the  most  bitter  antagonism  came  from  Jews.  Paul  might  call 
Jewish  Christians  '  unreasonable  men,'  but  he  would  not  describe 
them  as  also  'evil  men.' 

all  have  not  faith.  This  sentence  might  favour  the  idea 
that  the  men  just  referred  to  were  Jewish  Christians  lacking 
in  faith,  if  it  had  not  been  excluded  on  ether  grounds  ;  for  it 
would  seem  superfluous  to  say  that  'all'  have  not  what  as  yet  is 
possessed  by  but  a  small  minority.  Therefore  Mr.  Garrod  suggests 
that  the  word  'all'  here  does  not  apply  to  the  world  at  large, 
but  means  'all  the  Jews';  that,  however,  is  scarcely  possible 
since  the  Jews  have  not  been  named.     The  phrase  is  a  reminder 


256  IT  THESSALONIAKS  3.  4,5 

who  shall  stablish  you,  and  guard  you  from  the  evil  one. 

4  And  we  have  confidence  in  the  Lord  touching  you,  that 
ye  both  do  and  will  do  the  things  which  we  command. 

5  And  the  Lord  direct  your  hearts  into  the  love  of  God, 
and  into  the  patience  of  Christ. 

that,  however  successful  the  gospel  may  be  at  certain  places,  there 
are  still  those  who  do  not  accept  it. 

faith.  The  margin  of  the  R.  V.  has  l  the  faith  '  which  would 
mean  'the  Christian  religion,' but  the  term  is  not  used  in  this 
sense  so  early.  It  must  mean  'faith'  as  a  subjective  condition, 
i.e.  faith  in  Christ. 

3.  the  Lord.     See  note  on  verse  i. 

faithful.  In  the  Greek  this  word  comes  immediately  after 
the  word  'faith,'  and  thus  a  sharp  antithesis  is  marked.  All  men 
have  not  faith.     But  there  is  faithfulness  in  Christ. 

the  evil  one.  The  Revisers  have  given  this  expression  in 
place  of  the  abstract  word  'evil'  in  the  A.  V.,  just  as  they  have 
done  with  the  same  Greek  form  in  the  Lord's  Prayer  (Matt.  vi.  13). 
This  Greek  term  admits  of  either  meaning  according  as  it  is  taken 
as  a  neuter  or  as  a  masculine.  In  favour  of  the  Revisers'  correction 
we  have  (1)  the  more  frequent  use  of  the  word  in  the  masculine 
to  indicate  Satan.  Cf.  '  the  fiery  darts  of  the  evil  one'  (Eph.  vi.  16; ; 
'ye  have  overcome  the  evil  one'  (r  John  ii.  13.  14);  'Cain  was 
of  the  evil  one'  (Hi;  12) ;  'the  evil  one  toucheth  him  not'  v.  18  : 
4  the  whole  world  lieth  in  the  evil  one '  (verse  19).  (2)  The  analogy 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  similarity  of  phrase  here  suggesting  that 
perhaps  the  Apostle  had  that  prayer  in  mind.  (3)  The  contrast 
between  the  Lord  as  a  person  who  protects  and  Satan  as  a  person 
who  would  hurt.  In  his  previous  Epistle  the  Apostle  had  written 
of  Satan  acting  as  a  hindrance  (i  Thess.  ii.  18).  The  suggestion 
that  'the  evil  one'  is  'the  man  of  sin'  cannot  be  sustained,  seeing 
that  the  phrase  is  well  known  elsewhere  as  a  name  of  Satan.  Paul's 
thought  here  reminds  us  of  his  words  in  the  previous  Epistle, 
'lest  by  any  means  the  tempter  had  tempted  you'  (r  Thess.  iii.  5). 

4.  confidence  in  the  Lord :   that  Christ  will  lead  the  Thessa- 
lonians  to  carry  out  the  precepts  of  Christian  teaching. 

5.  the  Lord.     See  note  on  verse  1. 

hearts:  Hebraism  for  the  whole  inner  life  of  thought, 
emotion,  and   will. 

the  love  of  God.  This  may  mean  either  (1)  God's  love  to 
us,  or  (a)  our  love  to  God.  Probably  the  latter  is  the  meaning 
here,  because  it  suits  the  context  best,  (a)  It  is  more  natural 
to  think  of  our  hearts  being  so  directed  that  we  come  to  love  God 
than  that  thev  should  be  directed  into  God's  love  for  us.       b    The 


II  THESSALONIANS   3.  tS  251 

Now  we  command  you,  brethren,  in  the  name  of  our  6 
Lord  Jesus   Christ,  that   ye   withdraw   yourselves   from 
every  brother  that  walketh  disorderly,  and  not  after  the 


analogy  of  the  companion  phrase  '  the  patience  of  Christ '  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that  both  should  be  taken  subjectively,  for  conditions 
of  our  minds. 

the  patience  of  Christ.  If  '  the  love  of  God '  meant  the 
love  that  is  in  God's  heart,  we  should  be  compelled  to  understand 
'the  patience  of  Christ'  to  be  the  grace  of  patience  exercised  by 
Christ.  In  itself  that  would  seem  to  be  the  natural  signification 
of  the  phrase,  just  as  we  have  !  the  patience  of  Job'  (Jas.  v.  n). 
With  this  sense  the  passage  would  consist  of  a  prayer  that 
God  would  lead  us  to  imitate  the  patience  revealed  in  the  example 
of  Christ  when  he  was  cruelly  treated.  On  the  other  hand,  this 
thought  has  nothing  elsewhere  in  the  Epistle  to  introduce  it.  The 
Apostle  has  not  been  writing  about  the  patient  behaviour  of  Jesus 
when  he  was  on  earth.  But  the  dominant  theme  of  both  Epistles 
is  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ.  This,  however,  was  expected  by 
the  Thessalonians  to  be  seen  immediately,  and  the  consequence 
was  considerable  disarrangement  of  their  life  and  conduct.  They 
should  learn  patience  in  waiting  for  the  great  consummation. 
The  chief  purpose  of  our  Epistle  is  to  inculcate  patience  with 
that  end  ill  view.  For  this  reason  probably  patience  with  regard 
to  Christ  and  his  coming  is  the  idea  intended  by  the  expression. 

iii.  6-15.  Admonition  against  disorderly  conduct.  The  Thessa- 
lonians are  solemnly  commanded  to  withdraw  from  disorderly 
Christians  and  follow  the  example  of  Paul  who  supported  himself 
when  among  them  by  his  own  manual  labour.  If  a  man  declines 
to  work  he  is  not  to  be  allowed  to  live  on  the  funds  of  the  church. 
Busybodies  are  exhorted  to  earn  their  own  living,  and  that  quietly. 
Any  one  who  will  not  obey  what  the  Apostle  commands  in  this 
Epistle  is  to  be  shunned,  yet  admonished  in  a  brotherly  way. 

6.  in  the  name  of:    by  the  authority  of,   as  an  ambassador 

speaks  in  his  sovereign's  name  and  so  with  his  sovereign's  authority. 

withdraw  yourselves :  a  more  kindly  and  seemly  idea  than 

the  notion  of  expelling  a  faulty  member  or  suspending  his  member. 

ship. 

walketh  disorderly.  The  negative  character  of  this  conduct 
is  indicated  by  the  words  immediately  following ;  it  consists  in 
divergence  from  the  apostolic  precepts.  Its  positive  features  may 
be  learnt  from  the  subsequent  directions,  which  imply  that  there 
were  people  in  the  church  at  Thessalonica  who  neglected  their 
daily  work,  depending  for  their  support  on  the  charity  of  their 
fellow  members.      These  idlers  went  about  making  mischief  by 


252  II  THESSALONIANS  3.  7,  s 

7  tradition  which  they  received  of  us.  For  yourselves 
know  how  ye  ought  to  imitate  us :  for  we  behaved  not 

8  ourselves  disorderly  among  you ;  neither  did  we  eat 
bread  for  nought  at  any  man's  hand,  but  in  labour  and 
travail,  working  night  and  day,  that  we  might  not  burden 

interfering  in  other  people's  affairs.  The  expectation  of  the 
immediate  return  of  Christ  was  disarranging  the  daily  course 
of  life  and  duty.  Warning  against  this  same  disorderly  conduct 
had  been  given  in  the  previous  Epistle  (cf.  r  Thess.  iv.  n). 
Nevertheless  the  evil  had  grown  worse  during  the  interval 
between  the  two  Epistles,  for  while  in  the  first  letter  Paul  simply 
exhorts  the  church  in  one  brief  sentence  net  to  fall  into  such 
conduct,  here  he  specifically  mentions  persons  who  are  behaving 
in  the  way  he  has  condemned  and  devotes  a  whole  paragraph  to 
a  discussion  of  the  mischievous  state  of  affairs.  The  very  enthu- 
siasm that  the  new  religion  has  introduced  has  led  some  people 
to  neglect  the  prosaic  affairs  of  daily  work,  and  the  new  spirit 
of  brotherhood  has  been  imposed  upon  b}'  idlers  who  are  glad  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  generosity  of  their  fellow  members  so  as 
to  escape  the  necessity  of  working  for  their  own  living. 

tradition.     See  note  on  ii.  15. 

they.  This  pronoun  is  adopted  by  the  textual  critics  as 
required  by  the  best  MS.  authority.  There  are  no  ancient  MSS. 
in  support  of  the  reading  ■  he '  which  stands  in  the  A.  V..  evidently 
as  a  correction  of  the  text,  since  in  strict  grammar  it  is  more 
suitable  than  the  plural.  Some  very  ancient  MSS.  (including 
the  great  Vatican  codex  B)  have  'ye,'  which  therefore  must 
be  allowed  as  a  possible  alternative. 

7.  Ct\  1  Thess.  ii.  10. 

8.  labour :  hard  work. 

travail:  toil  in  face  of  difficulties. 

working":  tent-making    cf.  Acts  xviii.  3). 

night  and  day.  If  the  Apostle  was  supporting  himself  by 
manual  labour  while  at  the  same  time  he  was  preaching  the 
gospel,  founding  the  church,  and  training  his  converts,  he  must 
have  been  very  fully  occupied.  We  may  suppose  that  after 
meeting  the  church  in  the  early  morning,  and  conversing  with 
strangers  and  preaching  the  gospel  during  the  daytime,  he  would 
have  to  sit  long  into  the  night  sewing  the  harsh  goat-hair  cloth 
of  which  tents  were  made.  It  is  said  that  the  craft  of  tent- 
making  was  but  poorly  paid.  The  Apostle  laboured  so  much  in 
this  way  that  he  had  the  industrial  worker's  hands  with  their 
marks  of  toil,  as  he  seems  to  have  implied  when,  perhaps  holding 
them  out   before  his  hearers,   he  said  to  the   Ephesian  elders, 


II  THESSALONIANS  3.  9-12  253 

any  of  you  :  not  because  we  have  not  the  right,  but  to  9 
make  ourselves  an  ensample  unto  you,  that  ye  should 
imitate  us.  For  even  when  we  were  with  you,  this  we  10 
commanded  you,  If  any  will  not  work,  neither  let  him 
eat.  For  we  hear  of  some  that  walk  among  you  dis-  u 
orderly,  that  work  not  at  all,  but  are  busybodies.  Now  12 
them  that  are  such  we   command   and   exhort   in   the 

'  Ye  yourselves  know  that  these  hands  ministered  unto  my 
necessities,  and  to  them  that  were  with  me'  (Acts  xx.  34).  The 
last  clause  of  this  quotation  shews  that  the  Apostle  supported, 
or  helped  to  support,  his  fellow  missionaries. 

that  we  mig-ht  not  burden  any  of  you:  the  motive  for 
undertaking  this  manual  work.  The  Apostle  was  not  unwilling 
to  accept  the  means  of  support  when  this  was  freely  given  him. 
The  Philippians  sent  him  contributions  to  Thessalonica  (Phil.  iv. 
16),  Corinth  (2  Cor.  xi.  9;,  and  Rome  (Phil.  iv.  14). 

9.  Paul  recognized  the  right  of  the  Christian  teacher  to  be 
maintained  by  those  who  enjoy  the  benefit  of  his  instructions  (cf. 
1  Thess.  ii.  6  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  3-12).  The  Apostle  had  this  right  ;  but 
he  did  not  use  it,  in  order  as  he  says,  f  that  we  may  cause  no 
hindrance  to  the  gospel  of  Christ '  (verse  12).  The  right  was 
recognized  by  Christ  (Matt.  x.  9,  10). 

an  ensample  :  in  industry  and  independence. 

imitate  us :  in  this  particular  of  working  for  your  own  living. 

10.  even  when  we  were  with,  you:  shewing  that  even  then 
the  Apostle  perceived  the  danger  of  the  selfish  indolence  he  is 
here  condemning. 

this  we  commanded  you :  i.  e.  the  command  that  follows. 
If  any,  &c.     Idlers  are  not  to  be  fed  from  the  funds  of  the 
church. 

11.  we  hear:  evidently  reports  that  had  reached  the  Apostle 
after  the  time  of  writing  the  previous  Epistle ;  therefore  not 
brought  by  Timothy  (1  Thess.  hi.  6). 

work  not . . .  are  busybodies.  In  the  Greek  these  expressions 
are  represented  by  two  very  similar  words.  We  might  say  '  busy- 
bodies  not  minding  their  own  business.' 

12.  command:  with  apostolic  authority. 

exhort  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ :  urge  and  plead  on  the 
ground  of  their  relation  to  Jesus  Christ  and  for  his  sake,  that  his 
name  be  not  dishonoured,  and  that  his  grace  be  recognized  by 
diligence  in  work  to  please  him.  This  is  raising  the  duty  of 
daily  work  to  the  rank  of  Christian  service.  It  is  a  Christian 
duty  to  be  gaining  an  honest,  independent  livelihood. 


254  II  THESSALONIANS  3.  13, 14 

Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  with  quietness  they  work,  and 

13  eat  their  own  bread.     But  ye,  brethren,  be  not  weary  in 

14  well-doing.     And  if  any  man  obeyeth  not  our  word  by 
this  epistle,  note  that  man,   that  ye  have  no   company 

with,  quietness:  in  opposition  to  the  noisy,  fussy  behaviour 
of  the  busybodies. 

their  own  bread:  which  they  have  earned,  not  the  bread  of 
their  fellow  members,  taken  by  an  abuse  of  Christian  brotherly 
kindness. 

13.  Bnt  ye,  brethren:  the  rest  of  the  church,  as  distinct  from 
the  idlers  and  busybodies. 

well-doing.  Chrysostom  understood  this  to  refer  to  the  work 
of  Christian  charity  in  relieving  the  poor,  the  abuse  of  which  by 
the  idlers  would  tend  to  check  it  altogether.  But  there  is  no 
evidence  that  the  word  was  ever  used  in  that  limited  sense.  In 
the  LXX  it  is  used  of  doing  good  generally  as  opposed  to  doing 
evil :  thus  we  read,  '  to  do  evil,  or  to  do  good'  (Lev.  v.  4).  This 
is  the  only  meaning  in  the  Grimm-Thayer  Dictionary,  and  it 
is  adopted  by  most  modern  commentators  here,  e.  g.  Ellicott, 
Schmiedel,  Garrod.  The  antithesis  is  to  the  conduct  of  the 
idlers.  They  have  grown  weary  of  work.  To  the  church  at  large 
the  Apostle  gives  this  admonition  not  to  follow  their  evil  example. 
The  saying  is  repeated  in  Gal.  vi.  9.  though  with  a  slight  variation 
in  the  Greek  terms. 

14.  This  sentence  seems  simple  enough  ;  and  yet  three  distinct 
interpretations  of  it  have  been  maintained,  viz.  (1)  Joining  the 
phrase  by  this  epistle  to  the  words  that  follow,  'note  that  man  by 
means  of  this  epistle,'  i.  e.  '  use  the  epistle  as  a  standard  and  rule 
by  which  to  prove  the  unworthiness  of  his  behaviour.'  This  is  an 
unlikely  meaning.  To  write  of  noting  a  man  by  an  epistle  is 
a  strange  expression,  (al)  Translating  the  phrase  '  by  the  epistle  ' 
and  understanding  it  to  refer  to  an  epistle  the  Apostle  is  expecting 
to  receive  from  Thessalonica,  in  which,  as  he  directs,  his  corre- 
spondents are  to  give  him  the  offender's  name.  This  also  is 
improbable,  seeing  that  we  have  not  met  with  the  slightest  allusion 
to  the  Apostle's  expectation  of  any  such  letter.  (3)  We  come  there- 
fore to  the  third  interpretation  :  associating  the  phrase  '  by  this 
epistle '  with  the  preceding  words.  This  gives  good  sense  and  is 
the  meaning  suggested  by  the  punctuation  of  both  the  A.  V.  and 
the  R.  V.  Thus  the  reference  is  to  anybody  who  is  disobedient  to 
what  Paul  has  just  been  saying  in  this  Epistle, especially  concerning 
his  rebuke  of  indolence  and  his  directions  about  honest  industry. 
If  any  man  will  not  follow  out  these  directions,  but  will  continue  to 
behave  as  an  idle  busybody,  his  fellow  church  members  are  not 
to  associate  with  him.     There  is  no  indication  of  a  formal  act  of 


II  THESSALONIANS  3.   15,  16  255 

with  him,  to  the  end  that  he  may  be  ashamed.     And  15 
yet  count  him  not  as   an  enemy,    but   admonish   him 
as  a  brother. 

Now  the  Lord   of  peace  himself  give   you  peace  at  16 
all  times  in  all  ways.     The  Lord  be  with  you  all. 

censure,  much  less  can  we  see  here  a  rule  for  excommunication. 
Quiet  withdrawal  from  friendly  intercourse  is  all  that  is  suggested. 
This  silent  rebuke  should  lead  the  offender  to  be  ashamed  of  his 
conduct. 

15.  The  offender  is  to  be  treated  in  a  Christian  spirit.  The 
church  is  not  to  forget  that  he  is  still  a  brother.  Therefore  he 
should  receive  kindly  admonition.  Cf.  Christ's  directions  for  the 
treatment  of  an  offending  brother  (Matt,  xviii.  15-17). 

iii.  16-18.  Benediction  and  salutation.  Drawing  to  a  conclusion 
the  Apostle  prays  for  abiding  peace  and  Christ's  presence  to  be 
enjoyed  by  his  readers.  He  adds  the  token  of  a  salutation  in  his 
own  handwriting  and  ends  with  the  benediction. 

16.  the  Lord  of  peace :  probably  meaning  'God,'  because  of 
the  parallel  phrase  in  the  earlier  Epistle — '  the  God  of  peace ' 
(1  Thess.  v.  23;  see  note  on  that  verse).  But  Mr.  Garrod 
understands  the  phrase  to  refer  to  Christ, as  'the  Lord'  represents 
Christ  elsewhere  in  our  Epistle.  Paul  does  not  seem  to  discriminate 
between  God  and  Christ  in  this  place. 

give  you  peace  :  not  meaning  the  ceasing  of  divisions  and 
quarrels.  None  such  existed  at  Thessalonica.  The  irregularities 
referred  to  had  not  issued  in  any  breach  of  the  peace.  In 
Hebrew  the  word  rendered  'peace'  also  means  'welfare.'  It 
has  something  of  this  wider  meaning  in  the  N.  T.  The  Apostle 
desires  for  his  readers  true  welfare  in  peacefulness  of  soul 
and  life. 

at  all  times :  even  times  of  trial,  such  as  the  Thessalonians 
had  to  pass  through. 

in  all  ways  :  by  all  sorts  of  leadings  of  Providence,  all  things 
working  together  for  the  good  of  God's  people. 

The  Lord  be  with,  &c.  Evidently  it  is  Christ's  presence  that 
the  Apostle  here  desires  for  his  friends,  since  the  title  '  the  Lord ' 
when  standing  by  itself  in  this  Epistle  represents  Christ.  Thus  the 
Apostle  contemplates  that  presence  of  Christ  with  Christians  on 
earth  which  our  Lord  himself  had  promised  (cf.  Matt,  xxviii.  20). 

you  all :  including  in  particular  (1)  Those  who  were  distressed 
by  the  death  of  friends  and  relatives,  (2)  those  who  were  upset  by 
the  idea  of  the  speedy  coming  of  Christ,  (3)  those  who  were 
especially  selected  for  persecution. 


256  II  THESSALONIANS   3.  17,  18 

17  The  salutation  of  me  Paul  with  mine  own  hand,  which 

18  is  the  token  in  every  epistle:  so  I  write.     The  grace  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  you  all. 

17.  mine  own  hand.  These  two  concluding  verses  were 
written  by  Paul  himself,  the  Epistle  having  been  written  as 
a  whole  by  dictation  to  an  amanuensis.  In  Rom.  xvi.  22  the 
amanuensis  appends  his  own  salutation. 

the  token,  &c.  This  expression  has  been  used  as  a  ground 
for  discrediting  the  genuineness  of  the  Epistle.  Certainly  it  seems 
strange  that  the  Apostle  should  have  to  guard  his  readers  against 
forged  epistles  thus  early.  Is  it  likely  that  any  such  should  have 
been  sent  to  the  Thessalonians  so  soon  after  the  founding  of  the 
church?  Who  would  be  at  the  pains  to  do  this  ?  What  would  be 
his  motive  ?  We  cannot  answer  these  questions  from  our  limited 
knowledge.  Doubtless  there  were  currents  in  the  life  of  the  early 
church  of  which  little  or  no  trace  has  been  left  in  history.  We 
must  not  forget  that  Paul  had  been  carrying  on  his  apostolic- 
labours  for  some  eighteen  years  when  he  wrote  this  Epistle,  during 
much  of  which  time  jealous  rivals  and  pronounced  antagonists 
would  have  been  seeking  opportunities  to  hinder  him.  Then  ii.  2 
suggests  the  possible  existence  of  a  fictitious  letter. 

in  every  epistle.  Another  difficulty  here  meets  us.  This  is 
only  the  second  of  the  Pauline  Epistles.  Yet  the  Apostle  writes  as 
though  there  were  quite  a  number  of  epistles  in  which  the  custom 
here  described  was  observed.  But  (1)  we  do  not  know  but  that 
he  may  have  written  several  other  epistles  which  have  been  lost ; 
(2)  he  may  mean  that  he  has  started  a  custom  which  he  will 
observe  with  all  subsequent  epistles.  This  is  to  be  the  authenti- 
cation. Though  the  epistle  will  be  written  by  an  amanuensis  it 
will  always  conclude  with  a  salutation  in  Paul's  own  hand- 
writing. 

so  I  write :  i.  e.  these  very  words  and  the  benediction  that 
follows  are  written  by  the  Apostle's  own  hand. 

18.  The  usual  concluding  benediction.  See  note  on  1  Thess.  v. 
28. 

all.  The  one  addition  to  the  words  of  the  benediction  at  the 
end  of  the  previous  Epistle,  possibly  written  here,  as  at  the  end  of 
verse  16,  for  the  advantage  of  those  various  classes  whose  troubles 
or  defects  have  been  referred  to  in  the  Epistle,  especially  anybody 
to  whom  verses  13  and  14  might  apply.  No  one  is  to  be  excluded. 
May  the  grace  be  given  to  faulty  brethren  as  well  as  to  the  more 
worthy  members ! 

The  subscription  of  the  A.  V.  stating  that  the  Epistle  was  'written 
from  Athens '  disappears  from  the  R.  V.  as  it  certainly  was  not  in 
the  original  text.    Moreover  it  is  incorrect :  see  Introduction,  p.  5. 


THE  EPISTLE  OF  PAUL  TO  THE 

GALATIANS 

Paul,  an  apostle  (not  from  men,  neither  through  man,  l 

Introductory  Statement. 

i.  1-5.  Opening  salutation.  Paul,  describing  himself  as  a 
Divinely  appointed  apostle,  and  associating  all  the  Christians 
who  are  with  him  in  his  greeting  to  the  churches  of  Galatia, 
wishes  them  spiritual  prosperity  from  God  and  from  Christ  who 
gave  himself  for  their  deliverance. 

1.  apostle:  lit.  'one  sent,'  'a  messenger,'  from  a  Greek  root 
that  corresponds  to  the  Latin  root  of  the  word  '  missionary,' 
which  also  means  '  one  sent.'  The  word  was  used  in  classic 
Greek  for  an  ambassador,  one  who  represents  the  sender  with 
some  authority,  but  in  the  later  Greek  it  is  used  in  its  primitive, 
simple  meaning  (cf.  John  xiii.  16,  'one  that  is  sent,'  the  same 
Greek  word,  apostolos,  that  is  elsewhere  rendered  'apostle'). 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  word  (or  its  Aramaic  equivalent)  was 
used  as  an  official  title  of  the  Twelve  by  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  very 
rarely  applied  to  them  in  the  gospels  ;  but  after  the  resurrection 
of  Christ,  when  these  men  took  the  lead  in  the  church,  it  became 
their  recognized  title.  The  word  was  still  sometimes  used  in 
a  wider  and  more  general  sense,  and  thus  applied  to  Barnabas 
(Acts  xiv.  14),  and  by  Paul,  apparently,  to  two  of  his  friends, 
Andronicus  and  Junias,  with  others  (Rom.  xvi.  7).  Later  in  the 
first  century  it  was  given  to  an  order  of  ministry  in  the  church, 
as  we  learn  from  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  a 
primitive  church  manual.  But  Paul  nearly  always  uses  it  in  the 
stricter  sense  as  the  title  of  the  Twelve,  which  title  with  its  implied 
gifts  and  authority  he  claims  for  himself.  Plainly  that  is  the 
meaning  here.  It  occurs  in  the  opening  words  of  all  his  Epistles 
except  those  to  his  Macedonian  friends,  the  Philippians  and  the 
Thessalonians,  and  the  little  private  letter  to  Philemon.  But 
nowhere  else  is  it  placed  so  emphatically  as  in  the  opening  of 
Galatians.     Here  it  is  accompanied  by  no  humbler  title,  such  as 

(9)  S 


258  TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.  2 

but  through  Jesus  Christ,  and  God  the  Father,  who  raised 
2  him  from  the  dead),  and  all  the  brethren  which  are  with 

'a  servant  of  Jesus  Christ,'  which  precedes  it  in  Romans  (i.  1), 
and  it  is  followed  by  words  that  accentuate  its  importance.  Paul 
felt  it  necessary  to  assert  his  claims  more  forcibly  when  writing 
to  the  Galatians  than  in  any  other  Epistle.  The  note  of  authority 
that  pervades  this  Epistle  is  struck  in  its  very  first  words. 

not  from  men :  not  of  human  origin.  The  source  and 
fountain  of  his  apostleship  is  not  human.  Since  he  was  not  one 
of  the  original  Twelve  his  opponents  might  assert  that  this  was 
the  case,  alluding  perhaps  to  his  designation  for  missionary  work 
by  the  church  at  Antioch  (see  Acts  xiii.  2,  3). 

neither  through  man :  better '  a  man.'  No  human  agent  by 
ordaining  him  had  conferred  on  him  the  grace  of  apostleship. 
The  first  clause  refers  to  the  origin  of  the  apostleship,  the  second 
to  the  immediate  gift  of  it.  Neither  a  human  source  nor  human 
instrumental^  had  brought  this  gift  to  Paul. 

through  Jesus  Christ :  in  antithesis  to  'neither  through  man.' 
Paul  claims  to  have  been  appointed  directly  by  Christ  himself. 

and  God  the  Father  :  in  antithesis  to  ■  not  from  men.'  The 
original  source  of  the  apostleship  is  in  God,  His  will  and  grace. 
It  is  always  taught  by  Paul  that  the  primary  disposal  of  men's 
lives  and  destinies  is  with  God  the  Father,  rather  than  with  Jesus 
Christ.  Paul  does  not  here  say  when  and  how  he  received  his 
apostolic  mission,  but  further  on  (verse  15)  his  reference  to  his 
conversion  leads  us  to  think  that  it  was  at  the  same  time,  i.  e.  in 
the  amazing  experience  that  befell  him  on  the  road  to  Damascus 
(Acts  ix). 

who  raised  him,  &c.  It  is  the  teaching  of  Paul  generally 
not  that  Jesus  rose,  by  himself,  in  his  own  power,  but  that  it  was 
God  who  raised  him  from  the  dead  (cf.  Rom.  iv.  24  ;  1  Cor.  vi.  14, 
xv.  15  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  14.  &c),  as  it  is  also  the  teaching  of  the  N.  T. 
generally  (cf.  Acts  iii.  15,  iv.  10;  1  Pet.  i.  21).  The  subject  is 
here  introduced  to  account  for  Paul's  claim  to  have  been  appointed 
by  God  through  Christ,  although  he  had  not  been  associated  with 
our  Lord  during  his  earthly  life,  like  the  other  apostles.  He  had 
been  called  by  the  risen  Christ  and  his  appointment  came  from 
the  same  source  as  Christ's  resurrection,  the  supreme  authority 
of  God. 

2.  and  all  the  brethren,  &c.  The  question  as  to  who  these 
brethren  might  have  been  depends  on  the  date  and  place  of  writing 
the  Epistle  (see  Introduction,  p.  87  ff.).  Lightfoot,  supposing 
it  to  be  written  from  Macedonia  or  Achaia  during  Paul's  second 
tour  through  those  parts,  considers  that  the  company  perhaps 
included  Timothy  (2  Cor.  i.  1),  Erastus  (Acts  xix.  22),  Titus  and 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.  3,4  259 

me,  unto  the  churches  of  Galatia  :  Grace  to  you  and  peace  3 
from  God  the  Father,  and  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  4 
gave  himself  for  our  sins,  that  he  might  deliver  us  out 
of  this  present  evil  world,  according  to  the  will  of  our 

two  brethren  from  Corinth  (2  Cor.  viii.  16-24),  anc*  possibly 
Tychicus  and  Trophimus  (Acts  xx.  4,  5),  who  afterwards 
accompanied  him  on  his  return  to  Asia,  though  it  may  be  that 
these  men  were  no  other  than  the  two  brethren  from  Corinth. 
Prof.  Ramsay,  regarding  Antioch  as  the  place  from  which  the 
Epistle  was  written,  understands  this  clause  to  refer  to  the  church 
in  that  city,  which  was  the  mother  church  of  the  Galatian  churches, 
as  it  had  sent  out  the  missionaries  Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts  xiii.  2), 
whose  authentication  therefore,  he  thinks,  the  apostle  is  here 
giving.  But  would  he  not  have  named  the  church  explicitly  if 
that  had  been  the  case?  Besides,  the  general  character  of  the 
clause  scarcely  suggests  an  official  authentication.  It  was  the 
Apostle's  custom  to  associate  his  travelling  companions  with 
himself  in  his  letters,  generally  proceeding  to  write  in  the  first 
person  plural  on  that  account.  But  this  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
demanding  a  more  emphatic  assertion  of  apostolic  authority  is 
written  throughout  in  the  first  person  singular. 

the  churches.  Note  the  plural  form.  There  were  separate 
churches  in  the  several  towns  where  the  gospel  had  been  planted. 
Each  Christian  congregation  was  called  a  '  church.'  Subsequently 
the  Apostle  developed  the  idea  of  one  Catholic  Church  compre- 
hending all  Christians,  both  those  living  in  this  world  and  the 
blessed  dead,  though  without  ever  refusing  the  word  to  the  local 
congregations. 

Galatia.  See  Introduction,  p.  58  ft".  Observe  the  bald  style 
of  address.  Paul  usually  adds  some  descriptive  characteristics 
referring  to  the  graces  and  privileges  of  the  people  to  whom 
he  is  writing.     Nothing  of  the  kind  appears  here. 

3.  Grace  to  you  and  peace :  a  common  form  of  salutation  in 
Paul's  Epistles.     See  notes  on  1  Thess.  i.  1. 

4.  who  gave  himself.  Thus  early  in  the  Epistle  the  Apostle 
introduces  Christ's  sacrifice  of  himself  for  the  redemption  of 
sinners.  In  so  doing  he  puts  in  the  forefront  of  the  Epistle  the 
fundamental  truth  which  the  Galatians  have  begun  to  set  aside 
in  favour  of  Jewish  ritual  (see  ii.  21,  iii.  1).  His  aim  will  be  to 
bring  them  back  to  this  truth. 

for  our  sins.  The  Greek  expression,  if  we  follow  the  MS. 
reading  accepted  by  Tischendorf  and  Lightfoot,  is  that  used  in  the 
O.  T.  for  sin-offerings.  Thus  it  means  that  Jesus  gave  himself  as 
a  sacrifice  in  order  that  our  sins  might  be  forgiven. 

world:    lit.  'age.'     The  word   is  used   in  both  senses.     If 

S    2 


26o  TO  THE  GALATIANS   I.  5,6 

5  God  and  Father :    to  whom  be  the  glory  for  ever  and 
ever.     Amen. 

6  I  marvel  that  ye  are  so  quickly  removing  from  him  that 


we  take  it  to  stand  for  '  world,'  then  it  means  the  world  as  it  now 
is,  in  its  present  state  of  corruption.  The  Jews  were  accustomed 
to  distinguish  between  '  this  age,'  a  dark  and  evil  age,  and  '  the 
age  to  come,'  the  glorious  Messianic  age. 

according-  to  the  will  of  our  God,  &c.  This  is  all  in 
accordance  with  God's  will,  i.  e.  both  the  deliverance  itself  and 
the  means  by  which  it  is  effected,  Christ's  sacrifice  of  himself 
for  our  sins. 

5.  whom :  i.  e.  God.  The  glory  is  ascribed  to  God.  It  was 
a  Rabbinical  custom  to  interject  a  doxology  when  the  name  of  God 
was  mentioned.  With  Paul  there  is  more  than  obedience  to 
custom.     He  writes  with  real  feeling. 

i.  6-10.  The  Galatian  perversion.  Paul  is  astonished  at  the 
quickness  with  which  the  Galatians  are  being  turned  aside  from 
his  gospel.  If  the  most  authoritative  of  teachers  proclaimed  any 
gospel  different  from  that  which  they  had  received  at  first,  he 
would  deserve  to  be  accursed.  Paul  is  not  to  be  stayed  by  con- 
siderations as  to  whether  he  may  give  offence  in  the  determined 
stand  he  is  taking ;  if  he  were  influenced  by  such  motives  he 
would  be  no  servant  of  Christ. 

Thus  the  Apostle  plunges  at  once  into  the  subject  of  his  Epistle 
in  a  tone  of  indignant  expostulation.  This  is  wholly  unlike  his 
method  in  any  other  of  his  letters.  Elsewhere  it  is  his  invariable 
custom  to  commence  with  thanksgivings  and  congratulations. 
He  always  begins  in  a  spirit  of  kind  appreciativeness  and  Christian 
courtesy  by  gladly  enumerating  the  merits  of  his  correspondents 
and  expressing  his  joy  at  their  progress.  Even  when  writing 
his  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  wherein  he  has  occasion  to 
introduce  several  matters  of  fault-finding,  he  is  careful  to  begin 
by  gratefully  referring  to  the  one  point  of  progress  that  he  can 
discover  in  the  very  imperfect  church,  and  therefore  he  con- 
gratulates them  on  their  growth  in  knowledge,  eloquence,  and 
various  gifts,  though  he  cannot  speak  of  their  growth  in  grace. 
But  here  there  is  nothing  of  the  kind.  The  churches  had  been 
named  at  first  in  the  baldest  way,  without  the  ascription  to  them 
of  any  attributes  ;  now  they  are  addressed  without  the  recognition 
of  any  merits  in  them.  This  is  a  painful  letter.  It  must  have 
distressed  the  readers,  as  we  may  be  sure  the  writer  was  pained 
in  having  to  send  it. 

6.  I  marvel.    Observe  the  startling  and  abrupt  commencement. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.  6  261 

called  you  in  the  grace  of  Christ  unto  a  different  gospel ; 

The  declension  of  the  Galatians  is  so  swift  that  it  is  a  matter 
of  astonishment  to  the  Apostle. 

bo  quickly.  This  phrase  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion 
concerning  the  date  of  the  Epistle.  Those  who  favour  an  early- 
date  point  to  it  as  a  reason  for  supposing  that  it  could  not  have 
been  written  long  after  the  founding  of  the  Galatian  churches. 
But  may  not  the  word  'quickly'  here  have  reference  not  to  the 
time  of  the  conversion  of  the  Galatians,  but  to  the  time  of  the 
visit  of  the  disturbing  teachers  who  had  come  from  Jerusalem  ? 
They  had  been  but  a  short  time  among  these  Galatians  when 
the  fickle  people  came  right  round  to  their  views.  It  was  a  quick 
process  of  perversion.  Lightfoot  suggests  that  the  word  rendered 
quickly  (tac/ieos)  may  here  signify  'readily,'  'rashly.' 

removing":  as  in  the  R.  V.,  not  'removed'  as  in  the  A.  V. 
The  verb  is  in  the  present  tense  and  thus  it  indicates  a  process 
still  going  on.  The  perversion  is  not  j^et  complete.  Paul  hastens 
to  arrest  it  before  it  goes  any  further.  The  word  is  used  for 
military  desertion,  and  also  for  a  change  in  religious  opinion. 
Lightfoot  cites  the  case  of  Dionysius  of  Heraclea  who  from  being 
a  Stoic  became  an  Epicurean  and  therefore  was  said  to  have 
become  a  'turncoat.'  These  Galatians  were  becoming  'turn- 
coats.' 

from  Mm  that  called  you :  from  God.  So  serious  a  view 
does  Paul  take  of  this  perversion.  He  has  not  yet  said  in  what 
it  consists ;  but  he  begins  by  characterizing  it  in  the  gravest 
terms,  that  the  essential  significance  of  it  may  be  felt. 

in  the  grace,  &c.  :  or,  '  by  the  grace,'  according  to  a  familiar 
Hebraism. 

different.  The  Revisers  have  followed  Lightfoot  in  sub- 
stituting this  word  for  '  another,'  the  term  in  the  A.V.  The  Greek 
word  (heteron)  is  not  the  same  as  that  rendered  '  another '  {alio) 
in  the  next  verse,  and  Lightfoot  took  it  to  indicate  difference  in 
kind  and  the  second  word  simply  to  mean  an  additional  one 
of  the  same  kind.  Thus  the  two  clauses  would  mean  that  the 
Galatians  were  being  perverted  towards  a  different  kind  of  gospel 
which  was  not  really  another  gospel  because  it  was  no  gospel 
at  all.  But  Prof.  Ramsay  has  shewn  that  this  distinction  is  not 
borne  out  by  usage  and  that  the  exact  reverse  is  the  case.  Accord- 
ingly if  we  retained  the  present  punctuation  we  should  read  the 
passage  as  meaning  '  a  second  gospel,  which  indeed  is  not  realry 
a  different  gospel,'  because  all  the  apostles  preached  essentially 
the  same  gospel.  But  would  Paul  sa}'  that  here?  Surely  he 
would  not  allow  that  the  intrusive  teachers  who  were  leading 
the  Galatians  astray  were  preaching  his  gospel ;  and  verse  9 
distinctly  brings  up  the  idea  of  an  essential!}'  different  gospel. 


262  TO  THE  GALATIANS  1.  7-9 

7  which  is  not  another  gospel',   only  there  are  some  that 

8  trouble  you,  and  would  pervert  the  gospel  of  Christ.  But 
though  we,  or  an  angel  from  heaven,  should  preach  unto 
you  any  gospel  other  than  that  which  we  preached  unto 

9  you,  let  him  be  anathema.     As  we  have  said  before,  so 

A  third  possibility  is  suggested  by  a  change  in  the  punctuation 
of  the  following  verse. 

7.  Lipsius  rejects  the  idea  just  described  and  understands  'not 
another  gospeV  to  mean  'no  gospel  at  all.'  But  the  American 
Revisers  propose  to  remove  the  colon  that  occurs  in  the  R.  V. 
after  the  first  five  words  of  this  verse — a  perfectly  legitimate 
treatment  of  the  text,  since  there  were  no  punctuation  marks  in 
the  original  MSS.  Then  they  read  'a  different  gospel  which 
is  nothing  else  save  that  there  are  some  that .  .  .  would  pervert 
the  gospel  of  Christ.'  That  is  to  say,  this  other  gospel  they 
offer  is  only  a  perversion  of  the  one  true  gospel.  This  view  is 
advocated  by  the  German  classical  scholar  Prof.  Blass  and  favoured 
by  Prof.  Ramsay. 

8.  we.  It  has  been  suggested  that  Paul's  actions  in  bringing 
to  the  Galatians  the  decision  of  the  Jerusalem  council  (Acts  xvi. 
4)  and  in  circumcising  Timothy  (xvi.  3)  may  have  given  rise  to 
the  supposition  that  Paul  had  modified  his  views  and  come  round 
somewhat  to  the  position  of  the  Judaizing  party.  The  Apostle 
repudiates  the  notion. 

an  angel  from  heaven.  Some  of  the  Galatians  had  taken 
Paul  for '  Hermes,'  the  wing-footed  messenger  god,  i.  e.  the  Greek 
angel  (Acts  xiv.  12).  He  seems  to  be  alluding  to  that  incident 
here,  and  again  in  iv.  14,  where  he  says,  'ye  received  me 
as  an  angel  of  God.'  Now  Paul  is  so  absolutely  sure  of  the 
one  gospel  he  has  preached  to  the  Galatians  that  even  if,  on 
superhuman  authorit}',  something  else  were  preached  as  the 
gospel  the  preacher  must  be  denounced.  It  may  be  said  that 
this  is  the  language  of  bigotry  and  intolerance.  But  observe, 
it  rests  on  the  assurance  of  experience  ;  it  is  the  language  of  an 
apostle  missionary  addressing  his  own  converts  with  whom 
other  people  have  been  wantonly  interfering;  and  the  Apostle 
does  not  propose  to  take  any  external  action,  affording  a  precedent 
for  Inquisitors  with  their  autos  dafe. 

anathema  :  a  Greek  word,  lit.  i  devoted ' ;  in  the  first  instance 
used  in  a  good  sense  for  that  which  is  consecrated  to  God  and 
therefore  forbidden  to  be  handled  profanely  ;  then  used  in  a  bad 
sense  for  that  which  is  devoted  to  destruction  or  miser}',  an 
accursed  thing  or  person  (cf.  Deut.  vii.  26). 

9.  As  we  have  said  "before :  not  referring  to  the  previous  verse. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.  10,  n  263 

say  I  now  again,  If  any  man  preacheth  unto  you  any 
gospel  other  than  that  which  ye  received,  let  him  be 
anathema.     For  am  I  now  persuading  men,  or  God?  or  10 
am  I  seeking  to  please  men  ?    if  I  were  still  pleasing 
men,  I  should  not  be  a  servant  of  Christ. 

For  I  make  known  to  you,  brethren,  as  touching  the  n 

The  language  points  to  utterance  by  word  of  mouth,  and  that  on 
some  quite  distinct  occasion.  Probably  the  Apostle  is  reminding 
his  readers  of  what  he  had  said  during  his  second  visit  to  Galatia. 
He  had  then  warned  them  against  any  teaching  that  would  lead 
them  away  from  the  gospel  they  had  received  when  he  and 
Barnabas  had  been  preaching  among  them  on  their  first  missionary 
journey.  This  shews  that  the  danger  of  the  perversion  had  been 
perceived  by  Paul  as  early  as  his  second  journey. 

which  ye  received:  an  advance  on  the  expression  in  the 
previous  sentence  where  Paul  had  said  'which  we  preached.' 
There  had  been  more  than  the  proclamation  of  the  gospel;  it  had 
been  welcomed  by  the  Galatians.  To  turn  from  it  now  would  be 
to  shew  inconsistency,  would  be  to  belie  their  own  history. 

10.  This  implies  that  the  Apostle  had  been  charged  with  un- 
worthily shifting  his  ground  to  win  favour,  by  a  misjudging  of 
his  policy  of  becoming  'all  things  to  all  men,'  perhaps  with 
reference  to  his  action  in  the  matters  of  the  Jerusalem  decree 
and  the  circumcision  of  Timothy.  But  what  he  has  just  said  is 
a  repudiation  of  all  vacillating  conduct.  After  that  vehement 
outburst,  so  clear  and  uncompromising,  will  his  enemies  venture 
to  accuse  him  of  mincing  words  to  win  the  approval  of  men  ? 

persuading-  men :  to  regard  him  favourably. 

or  God.  We  cannot  actually  speak  of  persuading  God.  Paul 
means  seeking  God's  favour  and  approval. 

servant:  lit.  'slave.'  Contrary  to  his  common  custom  Paul 
has  not  introduced  this  title  of  himself  at  the  opening  of  the  Epistle. 
Yet  he  will  not  keep  it  back  even  from  the  restive  Galatians.  He 
is  not  ashamed  of  it.  He  counts  it  his  supreme  honour  to  be  the 
slave  of  Christ.  But  to  seek  to  please  men  as  the  chief  aim  of  his 
life  would  be  the  abandonment  of  the  service  of  Christ. 

I.  Personal  Defence,     i.  n — ii.  21. 

i.  n-17.  Paul's  account  of  his  own  conversion.  The  Apostle  now 
embarks  on  his  'apologia.'  His  first  aim  is  to  shew  from  the  facts 
of  his  life-history  that  he  was  not  dependent  on  any  human 
source  for  the  gospel  he  had  preached  in  Galatia.  To  begin  with, 
his  conversion  was  brought  about  directly  by  means  of  a  revelation 


264  TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.  12 

gospel  which  was  preached  by  me,  that  it  is  not  after  man. 

2  For  neither  did  I  receive  it  from  man,  nor  was  I  taught 

it,  but  it  came  to  me  through  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ. 

of  Jesus  Christ.  He  had  been  a  loyal  Jew  of  exceptional  zeal 
when  God,  who  from  his  birth  had  destined  him  to  his  apostolic 
mission,  was  pleased  to  give  him  an  inward  revelation  of  Christ 
for  the  purpose  of  sending  him  as  a  preacher  to  the  Gentiles. 
Immediately  after  this  Paul  refrained  from  consulting  any  human 
being,  and  did  not  go  up  to  Jerusalem  to  see  the  apostles,  but 
retired  in  seclusion  to  Arabia,  whence  he  returned  direct  to 
Damascus. 

11.  I  make  known:  the  Apostle's  customary  phrase  in  making 
some  new  assertion,  declaring  something  that  was  not  in  his 
previous  teaching  (cf.  i  Cor.  xv.  i ;  2  Cor.  viii.  1).  The  correlative 
to  this  when  reference  is  made  to  what  has  been  previously 
taught,  or  at  all  events  ought  to  be  familiar,  is  'Know  ye  not?' 
(Rom.  vi.  16). 

not  after  man :  not  according  to  a  human  standard  or 
customary  ways  of  thinking. 

12.  neither  did  I  receive  it :  the  usual  word  for  receiving 
a  tradition  handed  down  from  one  to  another.  It  was  no  mere 
tradition  of  the  church  that  Paul  passed  on  to  the  Galatians. 

nor  was  I  taught  it.  Paul  had  not  been  taken  in  hand  by 
Christian  teachers  to  be  trained  in  the  doctrines  of  the  faith.  This 
may  seem  to  contradict  the  record  in  Acts  where  we  read  of  the 
commission  of  Ananias.  But  that  record  says  nothing  of  teaching  ; 
it  only  mentions  two  things  done  for  Paul  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  the  Damascus  disciple — the  restoration  of  his  sight  and 
the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  followed  by  his  baptism  (Acts  ix.  17,  18). 

through  revelation.  Paul  claims  to  have  received  his  gospel 
by  means  of  a  Divine  revelation.  We  need  not  conclude  that  all 
his  knowledge  of  the  details  of  the  life  and  death  of  Christ  and  of 
our  Lord's  teachings  were  communicated  to  him  in  this  way.  In 
1  Cor.  xi.  23-25  he  gives  an  account  of  the  institution  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  which  closely  corresponds  with  the  synoptic  record.  It  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  he  had  this  by  word  of  mouth  from 
the  apostles,  or  perhaps  in  some  written  notes  containing 
it,  together  with  other  reminiscences  of  our  Lord's  life  on  earth. 
Paul  only  claims  to  have  received  his  gospel  by  means  of  a  revelation. 
Now  we  know  from  this  Epistle  and  other  of  his  writings  what 
this  gospel  was.  It  was  not  any  historical  narrative,  such  as  the 
narratives  that  make  up  our  four  gospels.  It  was  the  message  of 
redemption  by  means  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ  to 
be  enjoyed  on  condition  of  faith  in  him. 

Jesus  Christ :  the  subject  of  the  revelation.    This  was  making 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.  13-15  265 

For  ye  have  heard  of  my  manner  of  life  in  time  past  in  13 
the  Jews'  religion,  how  that  beyond  measure  I  persecuted 
the  church  of  God,  and  made  havock  of  it :   and  I  ad-  14 
vanced  in  the  Jews'  religion  beyond  many  of  mine  own 
age   among   my   countrymen,    being   more    exceedingly 
zealous  for  the  traditions  of  my  fathers.      But  when  it  15 
was  the  good  pleasure  of  God,  who  separated  me,  even 

Christ  known,  what  Paul  calls  God  revealing  His  Son  in  him 
(verse  16).  When  he  was  made  to  see  Christ  aright  and  under- 
stand him  he  could  perceive  the  nature  and  character  of  the  gospel 
of  which  Christ  is  the  centre. 

13.  Por  ye  have  heard,  &c. :  more  correctly,  'ye  heard'; 
perhaps  because  Paul  had  confessed  it ;  possibly  because  his 
opponents  had  busied  themselves  to  circulate  the  tale. 

the  Jews'  religion :  lit.  'Judaism,1  but  with  reference  to  its 
practices  rather  than  its  beliefs.  Paul  had  been  a  rigid  observer 
of  Jewish  rites. 

the  church  of  God.  The  word  '  church  '  here  does  net 
represent  any  one  local  community.  It  points  to  Christians 
generally.  This  is  the  earliest  reference  in  Paul  to  this  larger 
sense  of  the  word. 

made  havock.    Lightfcot  has  'devastated.' 

14.  of  mine  own  age.  The  Revisers  wisely  adopted  this 
phrase  from  Lightfoot  in  preference  to  '  my  equals '  in  the  A.  V. 

my  countrymen :  Jews.     Paul  is  writing  to  Gentiles. 

more  exceedingly  zealous  :  i.  e.  than  other  Jews  of  his 
own  age. 

traditions :  not  the  law,  but  Rabbinical  details,  pretended 
explanations  and  applications  of  the  law,  often  false  to  its  spirit  and 
purpose,  as  Jesus  Christ  shewed  (cf.  Mark  vii.  8).  Thus  Paul's 
conduct  was  the  exact  opposite  to  that  of  Christ,  whose  principal 
polemic  was  against  the  traditions  which  his  future  chief  Apostle 
once  so  zealously  advocated. 

15.  the  good  pleasure.  Though  this  word  originally  meant  no 
more  than  choice,  i.  e.  that  which  one  is  well  pleased  to  do,  in  the 
Bible  it  has  come  to  mean  favourable  choice,  and  when  applied  to 
God,  that  which  He  chooses  to  do  for  the  good  of  those  to  whom  He 
is  gracious,  or  simply  His  pleasure  in  them  (cf.  applied  to  men, 
Rom.  xv.  26  ;  1  Thess.  ii.  8;  applied  to  God,  Matt.  iii.  17).  Paul 
counts  it  as  a  favour  that  God  chose  him  to  be  an  apostle. 

separated:  marked  off  from  others  for  a  special  calling. 
This,  Paul  recognizes,  had  been  done  from  his  very  birth.  Cf. 
'separated  unto  the  gospel  of  God  '  (Rom.  i.  1). 


266  TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.  16 

from  my  mother's  womb,  and  called  me  through  his  grace, 

[6  to  reveal  his  Son  in  me,  that  I  might  preach  him  among 

the  Gentiles ;    immediately  I  conferred  not  with  flesh 

called  me.  That  came  later,  in  the  revelation  on  the  road 
to  Damascus. 

through  his  grace.  The  call  was  brought  about  by  reason 
of  God's  free  favour,  not  on  account  of  any  merit  or  claim  on  the 
part  of  the  man  called.  This  does  not  exclude  essential  fitness  in 
gifts  and  capacities  as  a  reason  for  the  call,  a  fitness  which  is 
implied  in  the  previous  idea  of  being  marked  off  from  birth  for 
the  special  vocation. 

16.  to  reveal  his  Son  in  me.  Two  explanations  of  this  phrase 
have  been  maintained  :  (i)  Taking  the  preposition  '  in'  according 
to  a  common  Hebraistic  usage  as  instrumental  and  equivalent  to  '  by 
means  of,'  so  that  the  expression  would  mean  '  to  reveal  his  Son  by 
means  of  me,'  i.  e.  in  Paul's  preaching  of  the  gospel.  This  is 
Lightfoot's  view  ;  he  points  out  that  the  next  clause  describes  that 
preaching  and  he  calls  attention  to  similar  statements  elsewhere, 
e.g.  'they  glorified  God  in  me'  (verse  24),  i.  e.  on  account  of  me 
(cf.  2  Cor.  xiii.  3  ;  Phil.  i.  30  ;  1  Tim.  i.  16).  (2)  Understanding 
the  phrase  to  refer  to  an  internal  revelation  enjoyed  by  the  Apostle 
himself.  This  view  is  maintained  by  Lipsius,  Pfleiderer,  and  most 
other  interpreters,  (a)  It  has  strongly  in  its  favour  the  fact  that 
Paul  has  just  been  mentioning  a  revelation  made  to  him  in  the  words, 
1  through  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ '  (verse  12).  (b)  It  is  required 
by  the  context.  Without  this  idea  there  would  be  no  mention  of 
Paul's  conversion  in  the  autobiographical  sketch.  He  speaks  of  his 
Divine  destiny,  then  of  his  call,  next  comes  this  phrase,  and  the 
mission  to  the  Gentiles  follows.  Thus  it  comes  in  just  at  the  right 
place  to  refer  to  his  conversion.  The  revelation  would  seem  to  be 
the  great  occurrence  on  the  road  to  Damascus  which  turned  the 
course  of  Paul's  life.  That  it  is  here  said  to  be  internal  need  not 
disturb  us.  The  narrative  in  Acts  implies  that  the  manifestation 
of  Christ  was  made  to  Paul  alone,  and  was  not  perceived  by  his 
companions,  which  shews  that  it  was  not  physically  objective, 
though  it  was  not  the  less  real,  a  real  revelation  made  by  God 
to  Paul,  not  a  creation  of  his  own  imagination  (see  Acts  ix.  7). 

that  I  might  preach,  &c.  Paul  connects  his  conversion  with 
his  mission.  The  revelation  was  made  to  him  in  order  that  he 
might  become  a  preacher. 

among  the  Gentiles :  the  specific  sphere  of  Paul's  mission, 
of  interest  to  the  Galatians  who  were  Gentiles,  and  bearing  on 
the  object  of  the  Epistle  which  is  to  maintain  Paul's  own  gospel 
with  its  freer  outlook  for  the  Gentiles  as  against  the  interference 
of  Judaizers. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.   17  267 

and  blood  :  neither  went  I  up  to  Jerusalem  to  them  which  17 
were  apostles  before  me :  but  I  went  away  into  Arabia ; 
and  again  I  returned  unto  Damascus. 

immediately  I  conferred  not,  &c.  The  Apostle's  point  is  that 
he  did  not  derive  his  gospel  from  men — that  he  had  it  direct  from 
God.  Proving  this  he  shews  how  he  went  away  immediately  after 
his  conversion  into  seclusion  without  any  conference  with  the 
Christians  who  might  be  supposed  to  have  instructed  him.  The 
word  '  immediately'  does  not  exclude  later  conferences. 

flesh  and  blood.  A  common  Hebraism  for  '  man  '  is  '  flesh.' 
Evidently  the  fuller  expression  has  the  same  meaning  ;  cf.  '  flesh 
and  blood  hath  not  revealed  it  unto  thee '  (Matt.  xvi.  17),  i.  e.  it 
was  not  revealed  by  any  human  being. 

17.  up  to  Jerusalem.  Not  simply  as  we  say  '  up  to  London  ' 
as  to  the  capital,  but  because  the  city  is  only  reached  by  ascending 
to  a  great  height,  since  it  is  about  2,000  feet  above  the  sea  level. 
Thus  leaving  Jerusalem  is  called  '  going  down  '  (cf.  Acts  xviii.  22, 
xxiv.  1). 

apostles  before  me  :  the  Twelve  and  possibly  also  James  the 
Lord's  brother  (cf.  verse  19).  It  would  have  been  most  natural 
for  a  new  convert  who  felt  himself  called  to  a  great  mission  to 
have  consulted  the  leaders  of  the  church,  his  seniors  in  the  faith, 
on  the  subject.  We  do  not  know  why  Paul  declined  to  do  so, 
perhaps  because  he  feared  they  would  not  welcome  the  persecutor 
so  suddenly  turned  disciple.  Doubts  may  be  felt  as  to  whether 
he  acted  wisely  in  this  matter.  Possibly  if  he  had  taken  the 
Jerusalem  church  into  his  confidence  future  troubles  and  misunder- 
standings, to  be  discussed  in  this  Epistle,  might  have  been  avoided. 
But  it  looks  as  though  Paul  had  been  overwhelmed  with  a  torrent 
of  ideas  and  feelings  which  simply  drove  him  into  seclusion,  where 
he  might  adjust  himself  to  his  entirely  altered  view  of  truth  and 
his  entirely  new  conception  of  his  own  vocation.  So  we  read 
how,  when  Jesus  at  his  baptism  had  consecrated  himself  to  his 
great  mission,  '  straightway  the  Spirit  driveth  him  forth  into  the 
wilderness  '  (Mark  i.  12). 

Arabia:  probably  the  desert  country  in  the  environs  of 
Damascus  and  to  the  south,  which  was  reckoned  part  of  Arabia 
at  this  time.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  Paul  went  there  to 
preach  to  the  Bedouin.  No  doubt  he  only  sought  solitude  for  his 
own  meditations.  This  journey  to  Arabia  is  not  mentioned  in 
Acts.  We  have  it  here  on  the  unquestionable  authority  of  the 
traveller  himself. 

again  X  returned.  Paul  has  not  yet  stated  that  he  had 
previously  been  to  Damascus  as  recorded  in  Acts  ;  but  this  phrase 
implies  that  fact  and  thus  indirectly  confirms  Luke's  narrative. 


268  TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.  18,19 

18  Then  after  three  years  I  went  up  to  Jerusalem  to  visit 

19  Cephas,  and  tarried  with  him  fifteen  days.     But  other  of 
the  apostles  saw  I  none,  save  James  the  Lord's  brother. 


Damascus.  A  most  ancient  city  situated  between  the  Lebanon 
and  Anti-Lebanon  ranges  of  mountains,  formerly  the  capital  of 
S3'ria  and  thus  frequently  brought  into  the  O.  T.  history,  since  that 
country  was  the  neighbour  and  sometimes  the  enemy  of  Israel. 
Our  knowledge  of  its  history  begins  with  the  capture  of  it  by 
David  (2  Sam.  viii.  3-6).  It  was  overthrown  by  the  Assyrians 
under  Tiglath-Pileser.  Subsequently  it  was  possessed  by  the 
Macedonians  and  then  by  the  Romans,  but  when  Paul  was  there 
it  was  in  the  hands  of  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia,  by  whose  ethnarch 
it  was  then  governed.  Elsewhere  Paul  states  that  he  escaped 
from  Damascus  through  a  window,  being  let  down  in  a  basket 
by  the  wall  (2  Cor.  xi.  33 ;  cf.  Acts  ix.  23-25). 

i.  18-24.  First  visit  to  Jerusalem.  Paul  tells  how  after  three 
years  he  visited  Cephas  at  Jerusalem,  staying  with  him  a  fortnight, 
seeing  no  other  apostle  except  James  the  Lord's  brother.  He  says 
he  is  speaking  the  truth  in  this  matter.  After  this  he  went  into 
Syria  and  Cilicia  without  having  become  personally  known  to  the 
churches  of  Judaea,  only  they  heard  of  his  conversion  and  glorified 
God  on  account  of  him. 

18.  after  three  years.  Prof.  Ramsay  states  that  according 
to  the  ancient  way  of  speaking  about  time  this  might  mean  only 
between  two  and  three  years,  so  long  as  it  was  after  the  beginning 
of  the  third  year.  But,  while  the  instances  he  cites  shew  that  the 
expression  '  three  years  '  might  be  used  for  two  years  and  a  portion 
of  a  third,  they  give  no  authority  for  understanding  the  very 
definite  'after  three  years'  to  mean  less  than  that  full  period.  He 
must  mean  more  than  three  years.  The  question  has  been  raised 
whether  this  period  is  to  be  reckoned  from  the  date  of  Paul's 
conversion  or  from  that  of  his  return  to  Damascus.  Probably  the 
former,  in  contrast  to  '  immediately '  (verse  16).  Paul  had  gone 
to  Arabia  directly  after  his  conversion  and  not  to  Jerusalem  till 
three  years  subsequent  to  that  great  crisis. 

visit:  rather  'to  become  acquainted  with'  (margin  of  the 
R.V.). 

Cephas :  the  Aramaic  for  Peter  (Greek). 

fifteen  days :  long  enough  for  personal  acquaintance,  much 
too  short  a  time  for  instruction  in  the  gospel  and  the  establishment 
of  the  great  principles  of  his  teaching. 

19.  other  of  the  apostles:  any  other  besides  Peter. 

save  James.  This  might  mean  •  I  did  not  see  any  other 
apostle,  but  I  did  see  James.'     But  the  use  of  the  expression  'any 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   1.  20-23  269 

Now  touching  the  things  which  I  write  unto  you,  behold,  20 
before  God,  I  lie  not.  Then  I  came  into  the  regions  of  2 1 
Syria  and  Cilicia.  And  I  was  still  unknown  by  face  unto  22 
the  churches  of  Judcea  which  were  in  Christ :  but  they  23 


other  of  the  apostles '  makes  it  more  natural  to  take  the  passage  to 
mean '  I  did  not  see  any  other  apostle  except  James/  i.  e.  reckoning 
James  as  an  apostle.  Paul  used  the  word  apostle  occasionally 
for  others  besides  the  Twelve,  e.g.  for  Andronicus  and  Jumas 
^Rom.  xvi.  7). 

the  Lord's  brother :  to  be  distinguished  both  from  James  the 
son  of  Zebedee  and  from  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus  (see  Mark 
vi.  3).  During  our  Lord's  life  none  of  his  brethren  had  believed 
on  him  (John  vii.  5).  But  Jesus  appeared  to  James  after  the 
resurrection  (i  Cor.  xv.  7),  and  a  little  later  we  meet  with  him  as 
the  leader  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xii.  17,  xv.  13  ff., 
xxi.  18  ;  Gal.  ii.  9,  12).  Observe  the  distinction  :  Paul  went  up 
to  Jerusalem  with  the  sole  object  of  becoming  acquainted  with 
Peter,  the  foremost  apostle,  preacher,  and  teacher,  not  with  the 
intention  of  seeking  out  James ;  but  while  there  he  did  also  see 
James. 

20.  A  vigorous  assertion  of  the  truthfulness  of  what  is  now 
stated,  amounting  to  an  oath  (before  God),  implying  that  Paul's 
opponents  had  made  contrary  statements  concerning  his  inter- 
course with  the  apostles  to  the  intent  that  he  had  learnt  his 
doctrines  from  them. 

21.  the  regions  of  Syria  and  Cilicia:  a  Roman  province 
including  these  two  districts— Syria,  with  the  capital  Antioch,  and 
Cilicia,  whose  chief  town,  Tarsus,  was  Paul's  birthplace.  Both 
cities  became  centres  of  Paul's  subsequent  missionary  work. 
Probably  his  reason  for  evangelizing  this  province  was  that  it 
was  'his  own  country.' 

22.  still  unknown  by  face,  &c,  and  therefore  could  not  be 
learning  his  lessons  as  to  the  nature  of  the  gospel  from  the 
primitive  Christians  of  Palestine. 

the  churches  of  Judaaa :  i.  e.  others  besides  that  of  Jerusalem. 
It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  Paul's  visit  to  Jerusalem  had  been  so 
secret  that  he  had  not  come  into  contact  with  the  church  in  that 
city.  Nevertheless  there  is  some  difficulty  in  reconciling  with 
this  what  Luke  says  about  Barnabas  introducing  Paul  '  to  the 
apostles'  and  Paul  'going  in  and  going  out  at  Jerusalem,  preaching 
boldly  in  the  name  of  the  Lord'  (Acts  ix.  26-29).  There  is  no 
actual  contradiction,  since  Paul  writes  of  his  having  seen  two 
apostles,  and  does  not  deny  that  he  saw  the  Jerusalem  church, 
and  Luke  does  not  say  that  he  visited  any  other  church.    Then  it 


270  TO  THE  GALATIANS   I.  =4— 2.  i 

only  heard  say,  He  that  once  persecuted  us  now  preacheth 
:4  the  faith  of  which  he  once  made  havock;    and  they 

glorified  God  in  me. 
2      Then  after  the  space  of  fourteen   years    I  went  up 

should  be  observed  that  the  two  writers  have  different  ends  in 
view;  for  while  Paul  is  simply  concerned  to  shew  that  he  did  not 
learn  his  gospel  from  the  Palestine  Christians,  Luke  is  interested 
in  tracing  out  the  growth  of  missionary  enterprises.  Still  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  two  accounts  leave  very  different 
impressions  as  to  the  character  of  Paul's  visit  to  Jerusalem,  and 
a  later  account  in  Acts  (xxvi.  20)  tells  of  his  evangelizing  'all  the 
country  of  Judaea.'  Between  the  two  records  we  must  give  Paul's 
own  statement  the  preference  as  regards  accuracy  over  that  of  the 
later  historian. 

23.  they  only  heard :  only  had  reports  of  Paul,  did  not 
see  him. 

the  faith.  This  cannot  mean  '  the  Christian  religion  '  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  expression,  as  that  meaning  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  given  to  it  so  early  as  our  Epistle.  In  this  primitive 
time  the  word  '  faith  '  is  always  used  for  the  internal  experience 
of  trust.  To  preach  the  faith  would  seem  to  be  'to  proclaim  the 
glad  tidings  of  faith  in  Christ'  (Grimm).  Lipsius  calls  this  'the 
belief  in  the  Messiah  as  the  way  of  salvation.' 

24.  glorified  God :  gave  glory  to  God,  praised  God. 

in  me :  on  account  of  what  they  heard  had  happened  to  me 
and  what  I  was  doing  in  preaching  the  gospel. 

ii.  1-10.  Second  visit  to  Jerusalem.  Paul  declares  how  in  the 
course  of  fourteen  years  he  again  went  up  to  Jerusalem,  travelling 
with  Barnabas,  and  accompanied  by  Titus.  This  time  it  was  as 
the  result  of  a  Divine  revelation,  and  his  object  was  to  explain  his 
preaching  among  the  heathen  to  the  chief  people  in  the  church 
in  order  to  prevent  his  work  from  failing.  Titus,  a  Greek,  who 
accompanied  him  was  not  compelled  to  be  circumcised  by  some 
false,  spying  members  of  the  church  to  whom  Paul  and  his  friends 
would  not  yield.  The  leading  people  at  Jerusalem  then  contri- 
buted nothing  to  his  knowledge  and  beliefs  ;  but  on  recognizing 
how  God  was  blessing  his  work  among  the  heathen  the  three  who 
were  reckoned  the  pillars  of  the  church,  James,  Peter,  and  John, 
heartily  acknowledged  him  as  a  brother  in  Christian  work,  agreeing 
that  while  they  laboured  among  the  Jews,  Paul  and  Barnabas 
should  go  to  the  Gentiles,  though  not  forgetting  also  to  care  for  the 
wants  of  the  poor  in  the  Jerusalem  church. 

1.  after  the  space  of:  a  different  preposition   {dia)  from  that 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  i  271 

again  to  Jerusalem  with  Barnabas,  taking  Titus  also  with 

translated  'after' at  the  commencement  of  the  previous  paragraph 
[lucta,  verse  18).  Strictly  rendered  it  means  'in  the  course  of,' 
lit.  '  through.'  Still  there  would  be  no  sense  in  the  note  of  time 
if  Paul  did  not  mean  that  what  he  was  about  to  relate  occurred  at 
the  end  of  that  period. 

fourteen  years.  Are  we  to  reckon  these  fourteen  3'ears  from 
the  conversion  of  Paul,  or  from  his  previous  visit  to  Jerusalem? 
Prof.  Ramsay  considers  that  the  former  view  must  be  adopted, 
because  Paul  is  reckoning  everything  from  his  conversion  and 
regarding  all  the  later  events  in  relation  to  that  supreme  crisis  of 
his  life.  Mr.  Turner  in  the  article  on  'Chronology'  in  Hastings' 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  Harnack  also  count  the  fourteen  years 
from  the  conversion.  Nevertheless  Lightfoot  is  followed  by 
Lipsius  in  taking  the  fourteen  years  on  from  the  first  visit  to 
Jerusalem,  and  there  is  much  in  favour  of  that  view.  The 
repeated  use  of  the  word  'then'  (i.  18,  21,  ii.  1)  seems  to  indicate 
a  regular  chronological  succession  of  events.  Besides,  Paul  would 
wish  to  mark  the  periods  during  which  he  had  no  intercourse  with 
the  apostles  ;  and  further  the  use  of  the  expression  '  in  the  course 
of  so  many  years  excludes  from  this  period  another  visit  to 
Jerusalem  previously  named.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  seems 
desirable  to  reckon  the  fourteen  years  from  the  previous  visit. 

with  Barnabas.  Paul  accompanies  Barnabas  who  is  the 
senior  Christian  teacher.  We  learn  from  Acts  iv.  36  that  Barnabas 
was  a  Levite  from  Cyprus,  who  had  sold  land  for  the  benefit  of  the 
poor,  and  who  subsequently  commended  Paul  to  the  church  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  ix.  27).  At  a  later  time  he  fetched  Paul  from 
Tarsus  to  Antioch  (xi.  25,  26).  The  two  friends  brought  the  gifts 
from  the  church  at  Antioch  for  the  relief  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem 
during  a  famine  (xi.  30),  and  afterwards  travelled  together  on 
what  is  now  known  as  Paul's  '  first  missionary  journey '  (xiii.  1  ff.), 
and  together  were  deputed  to  go  up  to  the  Jerusalem  conference 
(xv.  2) ;  they  parted  company  on  the  eve  of  the  '  second  missionary 
journey '  (xv.  36-39).  The  Galatians  would  have  a  special  interest 
in  hearing  anything  about  Barnabas  since  the  missionary  journey 
in  which  he  and  Paul  were  together  was  through  their  towns,  and 
Barnabas  was  one  of  the  founders  of  their  churches. 

taking-  Titus  also.  The  relation  of  Titus  to  Paul  was  entirely 
different  from  that  of  Barnabas.  He  was  a  young  disciple  and 
attendant  of  the  Apostle.  He  is  not  mentioned  in  Acts,  and  all  we 
know  of  him  is  gathered  from  Paul's  Epistles,  which  shew  that  he 
was  a  Gentile  whom  the  Apostle  employed  as  his  travelling  com- 
panion and  occasional  messenger.  Thus  he  was  sent  to  Corinth  and 
anxiously  awaited  at  Troas  by  Paul  (2  Cor.  ii.  13).  But  it  was  not 
till  Paul  reached  Macedonia  that  Titus  met  him  with  news  of  the 


272  TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  2,3 

2  me.  And  I  went  up  by  revelation ;  and  I  laid  before 
them  the  gospel  which  I  preach  among  the  Gentiles,  but 
privately  before  them  who  were  of  repute,  lest  by  any 

3  means  I  should  be  running,  or  had  run,  in  vain.    But  not 

Corinthian  church  (2  Cor.  vii.  6,  7,  13-15).  Titus  was  then  sent 
back  to  Corinth  with  the  Second  Epistle,  in  charge  of  the  collection 
for  the  Jerusalem  poor  (2  Cor.  viii.  6,  17).  One  of  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  is  addressed  to  him,  and  from  this  we  learn  that  at  some 
later  time  Paul  had  left  him  in  Crete  to  set  things  in  order  and 
appoint  elders  in  the  island  (Titus  i.  5). 

2.  by  revelation :   either  made  directly  to  himself,  or  through 
one  of  the  Christian  prophets. 

the  gospel  which  I  preach.  This  implies  that  there  was 
some  doubt  among  the  Jerusalem  Christians  as  to  what  Paul 
was  preaching.  The  main  message  of  the  Christian  missionaries 
was  the  same  in  all  cases — the  preaching  of  Jesus  as  Christ,  of  his 
resurrection,  and  of  salvation  through  him.  Nor  was  there  any 
unwillingness  on  the  part  of  the  Jewish  Christians  to  admit 
Gentiles  to  the  church — if  they  would  become  proselytes  to 
Judaism  and  observe  the  law.  But  Paul  was  dispensing  with 
this  condition  and  that  was  especially  his  gospel. 

privately.  This  does  not  exclude  a  subsequent  public  meet- 
ing with  the  whole  church.  The  explanation  of  his  peculiar 
doctrinal  standpoint  was  private. 

them  who  were  of  repute  :  or  '  who  are ' ;  there  is  no  verb 
in  the  original  Greek.  Verse  9  shews  who  these  were,  viz. 
James,  Cephas,  and  John,  though  perhaps  other  leaders  are  also 
included  here  in  the  less  definite  expression.  There  is  nothing 
satirical  in  the  phrase,  though  the  emphatic  repetition  of  it 
(verse  9)  may  convey  a  touch  of  irony. 

should  be  running,  &c.  :  referring  to  his  present  and  past 
work.  The  illustration  is  from  the  Greek  stadium — a  favourite 
form  of  illustration  with  Paul  (cf.  1  Cor.  ix.  26). 

had  run:  referring  to  his  past  work,  the  good  results  of 
which  were  endangered. 

in  vain.  It  could  not  be  that  Paul  was  in  doubt  as  to  the 
correctness  of  his  teaching.  His  attitude  in  this  Epistle  is  that  of 
such  perfect  independence  of  human  authority  that  he  could  not 
mean  he  had  any  hesitation  about  what  he  was  doing  till  he 
obtained  the  sanction  of  the  Jerusalem  leaders.  His  fear  must 
have  been  lest  the  influence  of  the  Jerusalem  church  should  be 
exercised  to  hinder  his  missionary  labours  among  the  heathen  ;  and 
it  was  to  prevent  that  disaster  that  he  explained  his  teaching  in 
a  private  conference  with  the  chief  apostles,  in  the  hope  of  eliciting 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  4  273 

even  Titus  who  was  with  me,  being  a  Greek,  was  com- 
pelled to  be  circumcised :  and  that  because  of  the  false  4 

their  sympathy.  He  did  not  require  their  sanction ;  but  he 
deprecated  the  hindrance  that  their  disapproval  would  have 
caused. 

3.  Was  Titus  circumcised  ?  The  verse  may  be  read  in  agree- 
ment with  either  answer  to  this  question.  It  may  mean  that 
the  known  fact  of  his  circumcision  was  not  brought  about  by 
compulsion  ;  that  it  was  done  in  accordance  with  what  he  and 
the  Apostle  also  felt  to  be  wise.  Luke  tells  us  that  Paul  had 
Timothy  circumcised  '  because  of  the  Jews  that  were  in  those 
parts'  (Acts  xvi.  3).  But  the  cases  are  not  parallel,  for  Timothy's 
mother  was  a  Jewess  (Acts  xvi.  1),  while  Titus  was  wholly 
Gentile.  Timothy,  by  undergoing  the  initial  rite  of  Judaism, 
would  be  fitted  to  carry  on  evangelistic  work  among  the  Jews  of 
his  own  neighbourhood.  It  is  much  more  likely  that  Titus  was 
not  circumcised.  Paul's  position  was  uncompromising;  he  says 
that  he  did  not  give  place  '  in  the  way  of  subjection '  in  the  least 
degree.  Under  such  circumstances  a  voluntary  acquiescence 
must  have  been  misunderstood.  Besides,  the  circumcising  of 
Titus,  a  Gentile,  would  have  been  in  direct  conflict  with  the  verj' 
position  Paul  is  vehemently  contending  for  in  the  doctrinal  part 
of  this  Epistle.  The  expression  'not  even  Titus'  implies  that 
great  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  on  Titus. 

4.  and  that  because  of  the  false  brethren,  &c.  :  lit.  'and 
because  of  the  false  brethren.'  The  sentence  is  incomplete. 
Paul  cannot  mean  that  though  not  compelled  to  circumcise  Titus 
he  did  it  to  please  these  false  brethren  ;  nor  that  he  refused  to 
do  it  to  please  the  false  brethren,  though  otherwise  he  might  have 
performed  the  rite,  both  of  which  ideas  would  conflict  with  his 
position  throughout  the  Epistle.  Lightfoot  suggests  that  if  Paul 
had  completed  the  sentence  it  would  have  run  thus:  'But  to 
satisfy,  to  disarm,  the  false  brethren,  &c,  the  leading  apostles 
urged  me  to  yield.'  That  view  implies  that  the  Apostle  never 
worked  out  the  idea  of  the  sentence  at  all.  The  thought  in  the 
Apostle's  mind  seems  to  be  that  the  importance  given  to  the 
question  of  the  circumcision  of  Titus  arose  from  the  action  of  false 
brethren  in  the  matter,  but  certainly  he  never  sufficiently  finished 
the  sentence  actually  to  say  this.  These  *  false  brethren '  would 
be  Jews,  who  contrived  to  get  an  entrance  into  the  church  for  the 
express  purpose  of  thwarting  Paul's  work.  Whether  that  was  at 
Jerusalem,  or  at  Antioch,  or  among  the  Gentile  churches  which 
Paul  had  founded,  is  not  made  clear.  They  must  not  be  identified 
with  the  Judaizing  disturbers  of  the  Galatian  churches,  who  belong 
to  a  later  period  and  are  not  charged  with  hypocrisy. 

(0)  T 


274  TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  5,6 

brethren  privily  brought  in,  who  came  in  privily  to  spy 
out  our  liberty  which  we  have  in  Christ  Jesus,  that  they 

5  might  bring  us  into  bondage  :  to  whom  we  gave  place  in 
the  way  of  subjection,  no,  not  for  an  hour ;  that  the  truth 

6  of  the  gospel  might  continue  with  you.  But  from  those 
who  were  reputed  to  be  somewhat  (whatsoever  they  were, 
it  maketh  no  matter  to  me :    God  accepteth  not  man's 

our  liberty :  the  liberty  of  dispensing  with  the  Jewish  law  in 
Gentile  churches. 

in  Christ  Jesus.  This  liberty  is  enjoyed  by  virtue  of  the 
relation  of  Paul  and  his  converts  to  Christ.  If  full  salvation  is 
found  in  Christ  alone,  no  bondage  of  the  law  can  be  required  for 
these  converted  heathen  who  have  it. 

5.  the  truth  of  the  gospel.  If  Paul  had  yielded,  the  truth 
of  his  large  gospel  of  liberty  would  have  been  obscured. 

with  you :  the  Galatians.  Paul  had  been  fighting  their  battle 
at  Jerusalem.  It  was  in  order  that  they,  in  common  with  the 
other  Gentile  churches,  might  retain  their  gospel  unimpaired,  and 
so  their  freedom  from  the  law  of  the  Jews,  that  Paul  had  explained 
the  whole  case  to  the  Jerusalem  leaders.  How  supremely  dis- 
appointing then  it  was  that,  after  this,  the  Galatians  should  be 
voluntarily  putting  themselves  under  the  very  yoke  from  which 
the  Apostle  had  been  at  such  great  pains  to  keep  them  free ! 

6.  But  from  those,  &c.  This  sentence  also,  like  that  in 
verse  4,  is  not  completed,  or  rather  the  Apostle  changes  the  form 
of  it  as  he  proceeds,  beginning  by  saying  '  from  those,'  &c,  never 
adding  what  comes  from  them,  but  returning  to  them  in  the 
nominative  case  to  describe  their  conduct  directly  :  '  they,  I  say, 
who  were  of  repute  imparted  nothing  to  me.'  The  bad  grammar 
must  be  accounted  for  by  the  vehemence  of  the  Apostle's  mind. 
He  rushes  on  from  point  to  point  quite  heedless  of  the  con- 
struction of  his  sentences.  This  is  living  writing,  though  awk- 
ward to  construe. 

reputed  to  he  somewhat :  the  three  apostles  named  in 
verse  9,  with  perhaps  other  leaders. 

whatsoever  they  were :  i.  e.  in  the  past,  as  men  who  had 
been  personal  disciples  of  Jesus  on  earth.  This  could  not  be  said 
of  Paul.  The  apparent  irritation  of  his  language  shews  that  the 
fact  had  been  flung  at  him  to  mark  his  inferiority.  Paul  will  not 
let  that  affect  the  measure  of  authority  he  allows  the  senior 
apostles. 

accepteth  not  man's  person:  a  Hebraism,  meaning  to  shew 
favouritism.     It  may  be  said  that  Paul  goes  too  far  here.     Mere 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  7-9  275 

person) — they,  I  say,  who  were  of  repute  imparted  nothing 
to  me :  but  contrariwise,  when  they  saw  that  I  had  been  7 
intrusted  with  the  gospel  of  the  uncircumcision,  even  as 
Peter  with  the  gospel  of  the  circumcision  (for  he   that  8 
wrought  for  Peter  unto  the  apostleship  of  the  circumcision 
wrought  for  me  also  unto  the  Gentiles) ;  and  when  they  9 
perceived  the  grace  that  was  given  unto  me,  James  and 
Cephas  and  John,  they  who  were  reputed  to  be  pillars, 


favouritism  was  not  claimed  for  the  elder  apostles.  Their  supposed 
privilege  was  based  on  the  historical  fact  of  their  personal  inter- 
course with  Jesus  on  earth  and  all  they  had  derived  from  it. 

imparted  nothing:  in  the  way  of  authority  to  preach, 
spiritual  power,  or  understanding  of  the  principles  of  the  gospel. 

7.  but  contrariwise.  Not  only  did  not  the  leaders  correct  or 
complete  Paul's  apostolic  equipment ;  they  recognized  to  the  full 
his  mission  to  the  heathen,  and  gave  him  brotherly  sympathy  with 
regard  to  it. 

intrusted :  by  God,  the  context  shewing  an  admission  that 
God's  hand  was  in  this. 

the  gospel  of  the  uncircumcision :  the  gospel  for  Gentiles, 
i.  e.  the  mission  of  evangelizing  the  heathen. 

Peter :  as  the  leading  Christian  missionary  to  the  Jews. 

the  gospel  of  the  circumcision :  the  gospel  for  Jews,  in 
distinction  from  the  mission  of  evangelizing  the  heathen. 

8.  The  same  influence  was  at  work  with  both  of  these  great 
apostles  in  their  missionary  labours.  The  successful  results  of 
both  proved  that  God  was  in  them.  If  the  recognition  of  this  fact 
in  Peter's  case  stamped  and  authenticated  his  mission,  the  same 
should  be  said  of  Paul. 

9.  and  when  they,  &c.  :  completing  the  sentence  of  verse  7 
which  had  been  interrupted  by  the  parenthesis  in  verse  8. 

the  grace,  &c.  :  probably  not  referring  to  Paul's  personal 
character,  but  meaning  the  signs  of  God's  favour  and  the  effects  of 
His  gracious  assistance  given  to  Paul,  as  seen  in  the  fruits  of  his 
missionary  work. 

James :  the  Lord's  brother.     See  note  on  i.  19. 

Cephas :  Peter.     See  note  on  i.  18. 

John:  the  son  of  Zebedee,  appearing  in  Acts  (iii.  r,  II, 
iv.  13  ff.)  as  the  companion  of  Peter.  Thus  Peter,  James,  and 
John  are  now  the  leading  apostles,  just  as  the  three  chief  disciples 
in  the  gospel  history  were  Peter,  James,  and  John  (cf.  Mark  v.  37, 
ix.  2,  xiv.  33).     But  while  Peter  and  John  are  the  same  men, 

T    2 


276  TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  10 

gave  to  me  and  Barnabas  the  right  hands  of  fellowship, 
that  we  should  go  unto  the  Gentiles,  and  they  unto  the 
to  circumcision ;  only  they  would  that  we  should  remember 
the  poor ;    which  very  thing  I  was  also  zealous  to  do. 

James  the  brother  of  Jesus  now  takes  the  place  of  James  the 
brother  of  John. 

reputed:  the  third  use  of  this  word  (cf.  verses  2,  6).  Paul 
does  not  deny  that  the  three  men  were  as  great  as  what  the 
church  reckoned  them  to  be.  Still  his  repetition  of  the  same 
expression  lays  emphasis  on  the  estimation  in  which  they  were 
held,  rather  than  on  their  actual  characters  and  worth.  This 
would  help  the  Apostle's  argument.  If  those  who  were  most 
highly  honoured  and  considered  to  be  of  most  importance  in  the 
Jerusalem  community  treated  Paul  as  he  here  describes,  it  was  un- 
reasonable for  the  Galatians  to  listen  to  the  insinuations  of  smaller 
people,  who  had  come  from  that  church  to  undermine  their  con- 
fidence in  their  own  apostle. 

pillars:  a  metaphor  applied  by  Jews  to  great  teachers  of 
the  law. 

Barnabas.  The  narrative  in  Acts  shews  that  Barnabas  had 
been  a  trusted  member  of  the  Jerusalem  church  long  before  this. 
But  when  associated  with  Paul  in  missionary  work  among  the 
heathen  he  joined  in  that  Apostle's  methods,  and  therefore  appeared 
before  his  old  friends  in  new  relations. 

the  right  hands  of  fellowship.  Brotherly  sympathy  of  the 
most  unqualified  nature  is  here  implied.  Baur  maintained  that 
there  was  a  feud  between  Paul  and  the  older  apostles.  This 
undoubtedly  genuine  statement  is  quite  irreconcilable  with  such 
a  hypothesis. 

that  we  should  gfo  unto  the  Gentiles,  &c.  This  division, 
as  Lipsius  says,  is  ethnographical,  not  geographical.  It  could  not 
be  maintained  permanently,  but  it  represented  the  main  distinction 
of  work  among  the  apostles.  Nothing  is  said  here  of  any  differ- 
ence in  the  preaching,  but  as  Paul's  full  rights  were  recognized, 
evidently  it  would  be  understood  that  he  would  preach  to  the 
heathen  a  gospel  free  from  the  Jewish  law,  while  the  other 
apostles  would  continue  to  preach  to  Jews  without  relaxing  the 
requirements  of  their  law. 

10.  remember  the  poor :  i.  e.  of  Jerusalem.  Before  this  Paul 
had  come  up  to  Jerusalem  with  gifts  from  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  29,  3o\ 
He  had  been  eagerly  gathering  similar  offerings  from  his  Galatian 
friends  before  the  writing  of  our  Epistle  (r  Cor.  xvi.  r). 

Note.  There  is  considerable  difficulty  in  determining  how  this 
incident  stands  related  to  the  narrative  in  Acts.     The  commonly 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  10  277 

accepted  view  is  to  identify  it  with  Paul's  visit  to  Jerusalem 
described  in  Acts  xv.  But  serious  objections  have  been  urged 
against  that  view :  (i)  Luke  describes  an  intermediate  visit 
(Acts  xi.  27-30,  xii.  25).  In  proving  his  independence  of  the 
older  church  authorities  could  Paul  omit  all  reference  to  this? 
(2)  Here  he  says  he  went  up  'by  revelation' ;  but  the  narrative 
in  Acts  xv  shews  us  Paul  and  Barnabas  dispatched  by  the  church 
at  Antioch  as  a  deputation  to  Jerusalem.  (3)  Paul  writes  of  a 
private  interview  with  '  them  of  repute,'  in  which  he  gave  an 
account  of  his  preaching,  and  he  makes  no  reference  to  any 
meeting  with  the  church  or  any  decree  coming  thence  ;  but  in 
Acts  xv  there  is  an  important  church  meeting,  commonly  called 
'The  Jerusalem  Council,'  in  which  the  condition  of  the  Gentile 
churches  is  discussed  and  a  proposal  to  settle  the  differences 
between  the  two  classes  of  Christians  is  formally  adopted.  Could 
Paul  omit  all  reference  to  this  when  sending  the  Galatians  an 
account  of  the  very  visit  to  Jerusalem  at  which  so  important 
a  decision  was  reached?  These  apparent  discrepancies  have  been 
used  to  discredit  the  history  in  Acts,  and  vice  versa,  by  a  recent 
Dutch  school,  to  throw  doubts  on  our  Epistle.  Prof.  Ramsay 
denies  the  suggested  identification,  and  understands  Paul  to  be 
here  referring  to  the  second  visit  (that  in  Acts  xi).  To  do  so  he 
has  to  make  the  fourteen  years  date  back  from  Paul's  conversion. 
He  finds  'the  revelation'  which  induced  Paul  to  go  up  in  Agabus's 
prophecy  (Acts  xi.  28),  and  he  thinks  that  verse  10  in  our  section 
has  a  distinct  bearing  on  the  fact  that  Paul  was  then  the  bearer  of 
aid  to  the  poor.  Then  Prof.  Bartlet,  dissatisfied  with  all  attempts 
at  a  reconciliation  between  the  two  documents,  supposes  Paul  to 
be  referring  to  a  still  earlier  visit  to  Jerusalem  not  recorded  in 
Acts,  and  Wieseler  identifies  it  with  a  visit  set  later  than  all  of 
these  in  Acts  xviii.  22.  But  is  the  older  view,  identifying  our 
section  with  Acts  xv,  really  untenable  ?  Lightfoot  argued  strongly 
in  its  favour,  and  he  has  been  supported  by  Hort.  (1)  If  the 
apostles  were  absent  from  Jerusalem  when  Paul  came  up  during 
the  famine,  he  would  not  have  to  mention  this  visit  {Judaistic 
Christianity,  p.  61).  The  fact  that  Luke  describes  the  relief  as 
given  to  'the  elders,'  and  does  not  make  any  reference  to  the 
apostles  in  his  account  of  the  famine  visit,  points  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  apostles  were  then  absent.  (2)  Could  not  Paul  describe 
a  solemn  embassy  dispatched  by  the  church,  probably  after  prayer 
and  with  full  faith  in  the  presence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  the  result 
of  a  revelation  ?  Besides,  he  may  have  had  a  private  revelation 
encouraging  him  to  go.  All  his  other  references  to  revelations 
in  their  bearings  on  his  conduct  point  to  personal  experiences  of 
his  own  (cf.  i.  12,  16).  (3)  Paul  is  here  dealing  with  his  apostolic 
rights  and  authority ;  Luke,  in  Acts  xv,  is  concerned  with  a 
question  of  public  policy.     It  is  quite  reasonable  to  suppose  that 


278  TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  u 

ii      But  when  Cephas  came  to  Antioch,  I  resisted  him  to 

Paul  might  have  a  private  interview  with  the  leading  apostles  to 
settle  his  personal  relations  with  them.  When  dealing  with  that 
here  he  might  think  it  irrelevant  to  add  an  account  of  the  other 
object  of  his  visit.  After  all.  Acts  and  Galatians  agree  on  the 
main  point — the  freedom  of  the  Gentiles  from  any  obligation  to 
become  proselytes  to  Judaism  as  a  condition  to  reception  in 
the  church.  That  was  the  essential  point  Paul  desired  to  get 
the  apostles  to  assent  to,  and  concession  to  which  was  implied  in 
their  admission  of  his  right  to  preach  his  gospel ;  and  that  was 
also  the  main  result  of  the  '  Jerusalem  Council.1  On  the  whole, 
therefore,  it  seems  best  to  identify  this  visit  with  that  of  Acts  xv. 
Prof.  McGiffert  cuts  the  knot  by  suggesting  that  '  Acts  xi  and  xv 
both  refer  to  the  same  event,'  i.  e.  in  each  case  '  the  second  of  the 
two  visits  mentioned  by  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.' 
He  adds,  '  It  is  entirely  conceivable  that  Luke  found  two  indepen- 
dent accounts  of  the  same  journey  in  his  sources  ;  and  as  the 
occasion  was  given  differently  in  the  two  cases,  he  supposed  them 
to  refer  to  separate  events ,  and  inserted  them  at  what  seemed  to 
him  the  proper  point  in  his  narrative '  {Christianity  in  the  Apostolic 
Age,  p.  171;,. 

ii.  11-14.  Dispute  with  Peter.  Paul  tells  how  he  had  a  dispute 
with  Peter — here  called  by  his  Aramaic  name  'Cephas'— at 
Antioch,  because  that  Apostle  drew  back  from  social  intercourse 
with  the  Gentiles  after  some  messengers  from  James  had  arrived, 
carrying  with  him  the  rest  of  the  Jews  and  even  Barnabas.  Paul 
openly  expostulated  with  Peter  for  this  inconsistency. 

11.  when.  There  is  nothing  to  fix  the  chronological  position  of 
this  incident,  and  Prof.  Ramsay  agrees  with  Prof.  Zahn  and 
Mr.  Turner  (article  'Chronology'  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible)  that  Paul's  language  would  allow  of  it  coming  earlier 
than  the  incident  just  recorded,  i.  e.  if  that  referred  to  the  visit 
to  Jerusalem  in  Acts  xv.  Lightfoot  considered  that  Paul  was 
still  continuing  his  narrative  in  chronological  order;  but  the 
phrasing  is  changed.  Instead  of  reading  'then,'  after  such  and 
such  a  time,  Paul  here  writes  'but  when,'  quite  indefinitely. 

Cephas.    See  note  on  i.  18. 

Antioch:  a  large  city  founded  by  the  Greeks  and  named 
after  Antiochus ;  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Syria, 
on  the  Orontes,  and  well  situated  for  communication  with  the 
west  by  the  Levant.  Josephus  calls  it  the  third  city  of  the 
empire,  only  Rome  and  Alexandria  standing  before  it  in  impor- 
tance {Wars,  III.  ii.  4).  The  church  at  Antioch  was  founded  by 
unknown  and  unofficial  Christians  from  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  who 
preached  to  the  Greeks  there  and  so  originated  the  first  Gentile 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  13  279 

the  face,  because  he  stood  condemned.     For  before  that  12 
certain  came  from  James,  he  did  eat  with  the  Gentiles : 


church  (Acts  xi.  20).  It  became  the  church  of  greatest  influence 
next  to  that  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  resources  and  energy  even 
went  beyond  the  mother  church.  Antioch  was  the  great 
missionary  centre,  and  it  was  from  this  city  that  Paul  and 
Barnabas  were  dispatched  on  the  mission  which  resulted  in 
the  evangelizing  of  the  Galatians.  These  people,  therefore, 
would  be  especially  interested  in  hearing  anything  of  signifi- 
cance concerning  the  church  in  that  city.  After  the  Mohammedan 
conquest  the  position  of  the  chief  town  in  Syria  reverted  to 
Damascus,  the  ancient  capital  in  the  desert.  Antioch  is  now 
represented  by  a  town  of  only  6,000  inhabitants,  called  in  Turkish 
Antaki  and  in  Arabic  Antakiyeh,  with  little  ancient  remains 
except  the  ruins  of  Justinian's  wall. 

stood  condemned:  more  correct  than  the  A. V.  rendering 
'he  was  to  be  blamed.'  Another  possible  alternative  is  'he  had 
been  accused,'  the  idea  with  that  rendering  being  that  the  Greek 
Christians  had  brought  a  charge  against  Peter ;  but  this  is  a  less 
likely  meaning.  'Stood  condemned'  here  means  'plainly  proved 
to  be  in  the  wrong  by  his  conduct.'  There  is  no  thought  of 
a  formal  trial  or  act  of  church  censure.  It  is  not  to  be  denied 
that  the  difference  between  the  apostles  was  real.  Origen  started 
the  theory  that  it  was  only  simulated,  and  he  was  followed  by 
Jerome  on  the  same  lines,  which  led  to  a  controversy  between 
that  father  and  Augustine.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Augustine 
was  right  in  his  contention  that  to  allow  the  idea  of  the  two 
leading  apostles  conspiring  to  act  a  lie  would  be  to  undermine 
the  whole  authority  of  Scripture. 

12.  certain  .  .  .  from  James :  messengers  from  James,  we  do 
not  know  on  what  errand.  Mr.  Turner  is  inclined  to  identify 
them  with  those  of  whom  we  read  in  Acts  xv.  1 :  '  and  certain 
men  came  down  from  Judaea  and  taught  the  brethren,  saying, 
Except  ye  be  circumcised  after  the  custom  of  Moses,  ye  cannot 
be  saved.'  If  we  accept  this  view  we  must  place  the  incident 
just  before  the  Jerusalem  council  recorded  later  in  Acts  xv,  and 
therefore  prior  to  the  previous  incident  in  Galatians.  Acts 
represents  Barnabas  as  united  with  Paul  in  resisting  the  Jewish 
influence,  while  in  Galatians  he  follows  Paul  in  being  carried 
away  by  it.  Besides,  the  questions  are  not  identical.  In  the 
present  case  there  is  no  mention  of  compelling  the  Gentiles  to 
be  circumcised;  the  only  point  is  that  of  Jewish  Christians  eating 
at  the  same  table  with  their  Gentile  brethren.  Still,  if  so  serious 
a  breach  of  church  unity  as  the  exclusive  policy  which  the  Jewish 
party  would  advocate  were   brought   about,    Gentile   Christians 


28o  TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  13 

but  when  they  came,  he  drew  back  and  separated  himself, 

13  fearing  them  that  were  of  the  circumcision.     And  the  rest 

of  the  Jews  dissembled  likewise  with  him  ;  insomuch  that 


would  feel  themselves  ostracized  until  they  had  embraced  the 
Jewish  law,  and  thus  a  measure  of  constraint  would  be  brought 
to  bear  upon  them  in  order  to  induce  them  to  do  so.  In  any  case, 
it  would  not  be  fair  to  make  James  up  at  Jerusalem  responsible 
for  the  action  of  his  messengers  at  Antioch,  when  we  do  not  know 
but  that  they  were  exceeding  their  authority,  if  the  words  in  Acts 
xv.   1  are  to  be  attributed  to  them. 

eat  with  the  Gentiles :  contrary  to  Jewish  custom  and 
especially  reprobated  by  the  Pharisees,  the  party  specified  in 
Acts  xv.  1-5  as  interfering  with  the  liberty  of  the  church  at 
Antioch.  Peter's  conduct  at  this  point  is  not  to  be  set  down 
to  weakness  or  lack  of  principle.  Further  on  Paul  implies  that 
it  was  based  on  that  Apostle's  convictions  of  Christian  liberty. 
The  vision  at  Joppa  points  in  this  direction  (Acts  x.  15).  The 
custom  of  the  agape  in  the  early  church  gave  great  importance 
to  the  question.  To  refuse  to  eat  with  the  Gentiles  would  mean 
to  decline  to  meet  them  at  those  feasts  of  brotherly  love,  and  the 
Lord's  supper,  with  which  it  was  then  associated. 

drew  hack:  in  the  imperfect  tense,  signifying  a  slow  and 
cautious  movement. 

separated:  in  the  aorist  tense,  indicating  the  final  result. 
Peter  gradually  withdrew  himself  till  at  length  he  was  quite 
separated  from  the  Gentile  Christians. 

fearing-,  &c.  Thus  it  is  Paul's  view  of  the  case  that  Peter 
changed  his  conduct  simply  out  of  fear,  dreading  the  censure  of 
the  narrower-minded  Jewish  Christians  from  Jerusalem.  We 
should  like  to  have  Peter's  version  of  the  incident.  Possibly 
that  Apostle  actually  wavered  in  his  opinion  as  to  what  was  right 
in  the  matter  when  strong  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon 
him.  His  whole  career  reveals  him  as  a  man  under  the  influence 
of  the  impressions  of  the  moment.  To  a  man  of  Paul's  strong, 
independent  character  such  a  nature  would  not  be  easily  intelligible. 
13.  the  rest  of  the  Jews :  Jewish  members  of  the  church  at 
Antioch.  Previously,  encouraged  by  Peter's  example,  these 
people  had  freely  associated  with  their  Gentile  brethren.  Thus 
unity  of  a  very  liberal  stamp  had  prevailed.  Peter's  conduct 
led  to  a  serious  breach  of  church  unity. 

dissembled  likewise.  Thus  Paul  considers  that  this  change 
of  conduct  was  pure  dissimulation,  holding  that  both  Peter  and 
the  Jewish  Christians  really  believed  in  the  liberal  position  and 
only  pretended  to  share  the  principles  of  James's  messengers. 
Whether    this   is   quite    fair    to    them   or    not,    it    is  plain    that 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  14  281 

even  Barnabas  was  carried  away  with  their  dissimulation. 
But  when  I  saw  that  they  walked  not  uprightly  according  14 
to  the  truth  of  the  gospel,  I  said  unto  Cephas  before 
them  all,  If  thou,  being  a  Jew,  livest  as  do  the  Gentiles, 

Paul  did  not  believe  Peter's  fundamental  position  to  be  that  of 
the  strong  Judaizers,  the  view  of  the  so-called  Tubingen  hypo- 
thesis which  represents  the  early  church  to  be  divided  into  two 
antagonistic  parties,  on  the  one  side  Paul  and  his  followers,  on 
the  other  James,  Peter,  John  and  all  the  other  apostles  and  Jewish 
Christians.  Paul  here  declares  that  when  Peter  sided  with  the 
Judaizers  that  Apostle  was  hiding  his  real  convictions,  so  sure  is  he 
that  Peter  was  at  heart  in  agreement  with  his  own  position. 

even  Barnabas.  Why  '  even '  ?  Because  Barnabas  had  been 
Paul's  travelling  companion,  and  indeed,  as  the  senior,  regarded 
as  the  leader  in  the  mission  to  the  heathen  which  had  resulted 
in  the  founding  of  the  Galatian  churches.  The  Galatians  might 
well  be  amazed  that  their  senior  evangelist  should  have  succumbed 
to  the  influence  of  the  party  of  exclusiveness.  Indirectly  the 
prominence  given  to  Barnabas  is  a  testimony  in  favour  of  the 
*  South  Galatian  theory/  since  it  was  on  the  tour  through  Antioch, 
Pisidium,  Derbe,  and  Lystra  that  Paul  and  Barnabas  travelled 
together. 

14.  uprightly:  more  exactly  'in  a  straight  course.'  Paul 
does  not  mean  to  insinuate  want  of  integrity.  His  words  should 
be  interpreted  objectively,  with  regard  to  the  course  pursued 
by  Peter  and  his  followers.  This  Paul  finds  to  deviate  from  the 
norm  of  the  gospel. 

according*  to  the  truth,  &c. :  the  line  from  which  they 
deviated.  Paul  holds  that  the  truth  of  the  gospel  is  with  the 
liberalism  that  unites  Jews  and  Gentiles  in  the  common  Christian 
family. 

before  them  all :  perhaps  neither  a  wise  nor  a  kind  course, 
considering  that  Peter  was  the  senior  Apostle.  Peter's  conduct 
was  public  and  his  example  had  spread,  and  therefore  Paul  would 
feel  that  it  must  be  publicly  rebuked.  Still,  if  we  read  between 
the  lines  we  may  see  that  he  was  carried  away  by  the  heat  of 
his  indignation  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  considerateness  due 
to  such  a  man  as  Peter.  His  excuse  is  that  his  indignation — 
if  not  his  way  of  shewing  it — was  justified  by  the  seriousness  of 
the  crisis.  To  Paul  everything  vital  was  at  stake.  If  the  Gentiles 
were  to  be  cut  off  from  communion  with  the  Jewish  Christians, 
the  unity  of  the  brotherhood  would  be  fatally  severed,  and  all  who 
believed  in  the  position  of  the  apostolic  church  would  necessarily 
regard  the  converts  from  heathenism,  who  followed  Paul's  liberal 
teaching,  as  of  a  lower  grade. 


282  TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.   iS 

and  not  as  do  the  Jews,  how  compellest  thou  the  Gentiles 
5  to  live  as  do  the  Jews  ?    We  being  Jews  by  nature,  and 

how  compellest  thou,  &c.  Peter  had  lived  in  the  free 
Gentile  style  until  the  friends  of  James  had  arrived  at  Antioch. 
By  using  the  present  tense,  '  If  thou  livest,'  Paul  here  assumes 
that  this  is  the  older  apostle's  habit.  And  yet  by  now  changing 
his  line  of  action  he  is  tending  to  draw  the  Gentiles  after  him 
into  the  narrower  Jewish  way.  When  Paul  uses  the  word 
'compel'  he  cannot  mean  direct  action,  of  which  we  have  no 
hint.  To  people  of  scrupulous  conscience  anxious  to  follow  the 
lead  of  so  eminent  a  personage,  Peter's  example  virtually  amounted 
to  compulsion.  The  result  would  be  that  such  people  would  seek 
circumcision,  become  proselytes  to  Judaism,  and  take  on  them 
the  yoke  of  the  Jewish  law. 

ii.  15-21.  The  neiv  life  in  Christ.  Even  Peter  and  Paul,  though 
Jews  by  nature,  were  not  justified  by  the  law,  but  had  their 
justification  through  faith  in  Christ,  since  nobody  can  be  justified 
by  the  law.  This  does  not  allow  of  continuance  in  sin,  which 
would  be  most  inconsistent  with  faith  in  Christ.  The  old  life 
is  crucified  with  Christ :  the  new  life  is  enjoyed  through  faith 
in  the  Son  of  God  who  manifested  his  love  by  dying.  This 
grace  of  love  would  be  nullified  if,  after  all,  justification  were 
to  be  got  by  way  of  law. 

This  passage  begins  as  part  of  Paul's  expostulations  with  Peter 
and  so  continues  to  the  end  of  verse  17,  where  the  plural  is 
dropped  and  the  paragraph  passes  into  the  first  person  singular, 
indicating  that  the  Apostle  is  adding  his  own  comment.  Still  the 
whole  passage  is  so  much  of  a  piece  that  it  is  best  to  read  it  as 
one  section.  It  would  seem  that  even  in  the  earlier  part  Paul 
is  not  certainly  reproducing  the  ipsissima  verba  of  his  address 
to  Peter.  The  passage  reads  rather  like  a  meditative  working  up 
of  what  was  said  in  the  heat  of  controversy  with  later  reflection. 
Thus  the  historical  recital  melts  into  doctrinal  discussion,  and  we 
are  not  told  how  the  incident  ended — probably  not  satisfactorily, 
for  if  Peter  had  yielded  at  the  time  Paul  would  have  said  so. 
It  would  have  made  an  excellent  point  in  the  argument  with  the 
Galatians.  Probably  therefore  the  apostles  parted  on  this  occasion 
without  coming  to  an  agreement.  Yet  the  quarrel  passed  off 
in  course  of  time,  and  Peter  came  more  and  more  to  accept 
Paul's  views.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  1  Peter  is  thoroughly 
Pauline,  and  betrays  a  sympathetic  acquaintance  with  some  of 
Paul's  Epistles. 

15.  We:  Peter  and  Paul. 

Jews  by  nature:  Jews  born,  not  even  proselytes,  much  less 
uncircumcised  Gentiles.     Cf.  Phil.  iii.  4,  5. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   2.  16  283 

not  sinners  of  the  Gentiles,  yet  knowing  that  a  man  is  16 
not  justified  by  the  works  of  the  law,  save  through  faith 

sinners  of  the  Gentiles:  an  ironical  expression.  The  Jews 
reckoned  the  Gentiles  as  such  to  be  sinners.  Cf.  1  Mace.  ii.  44  : 
1  they  mustered  a  host,  and  smote  sinners  in  their  anger.'  In 
Luke  vi.  32  we  have  '  even  sinners  love  those  that  love  them.' 
corresponding  to  Matt.  v.  47,  'do  not  even  the  Gentiles  the 
same  ? ' 

16.  knowing,  &c.  Again  Paul  assumes  that  Peter  shares  his 
fundamental  position.  As  Christians  they  had  both  reached 
justification  by  means  of  faith. 

justified :  '  pronounced  righteous,' '  reckoned  to  be  righteous,' 
and  in  Paul  especially  '  treated  as  righteous.'  (1)  The  Greek 
word  (dikaioo^  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  clearing  of  guilt ; 
cf.  Gen.  xlv.  16,  '  How  shall  we  clear  ourselves  ? '  Exod.  xxiii.  7, 
*  I  will  not  justify  the  wicked '  ;  Ps.  cxliii.  2,  '  In  thy  sight  shall  no 
man  living  be  justified.'  This  is  a  familiar  English  use  of  the 
word.  Thus  Shakespeare  has  it :  'I  cannot  justify  whom  the 
law  condemns'  (2  Henry  VI,  Act  ii.  Scene  3).  This  is  the  most 
frequent  sense  of  the  word  in  the  gospels  (cf.  Matt.  xii.  37 ; 
Luke  x.  29).  But  for  this  usage  the  original  innocence  of  the 
person  justified  is  requisite.  (2)  A  secondary  meaning  appears  in 
the  teaching  of  Paul  when  the  word  is  used  for  a  guilty  person. 
Here  it  does  not  mean  making  righteous  in  character,  but  treating 
as  righteous,  i.  e.  treating  as  though  a  person  were  justified  in 
the  original  sense  of  the  word.  This  is  equivalent  to  forgiveness  ; 
it  is  forgiveness  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  law  and  right. 
At  the  same  time  as  implying  the  re-establishment  of  right 
relations  with  God,  the  result  of  it  is  called  '  righteousness ' 
(Rom.  iii.  21-24).  This  peculiar  meaning  of  the  word — since 
made  familiar,  especially  through  Luther's  teaching — is  frequent 
in  Romans  and  Galatians,  but  scarcely  to  be  met  with  anywhere 
else — only  once  in  1  Cor.  (vi.  11)  and  once  in  Titus  (iii.  7).  It 
also  appears  once  in  Acts  (xiii.  39).  In  this  sense  of  forgiveness 
the  word  occurs  nowhere  else  in  the  N.  T.,  except  perhaps  in 
Luke  xviii.  14.  It  is  used  in  James  in  the  earlier  sense  of  acquitting 
or  pronouncing  innocent,  apart  from  the  notion  of  forgiveness. 
It  does  not  occur  at  all  in  Hebrews,  1  and  2  Peter,  1,  2,  and 
3  John,  or  Revelation. 

the  works  of  the  law :  rather  '  works  of  law,'  i.  e.  works 
prescribed  by  law. 

save:  more  correct  than  'but'  (A.V.),  the  Greek  expression 
{ean  me)  meaning  'except.'  Yet  Paul  cannot  intend  to  teach 
that  justification  is  by  works  of  the  law  if  only  faith  is  added, 
the  very  position  of  the  Judaizing  Christians  which  he  is  contesting. 


284  TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  17 

in  Jesus  Christ,  even  we  believed  on  Christ  Jesus,  that 
we  might  be  justified  by  faith  in  Christ,  and  not  by  the 
w  orks  of  the  law  :  because  by  the  works  of  the  law  shall 
17  no  flesh  be  justified.  But  if,  while  we  sought  to  be 
justified  in  Christ,  we  ourselves  also  were  found  sinners, 

Lightfoot  connects  the  clause  directly  with  'justified'  as  'not 
justified  except  through  faith.'  Otherwise  we  are  bound  to 
give  it  the  meaning  '  but,'  although  no  satisfactory  instances  of 
such  a  meaning  can  be  adduced,  and  the  grammarians  (Winer,  &c.) 
deny  that  it  ever  has  it. 

through  faith.  Faith  is  not  the  ground  of  justification,  but 
the  means  through  which  it  is  received. 

faith  in  Jesus  Christ :  not  '  the  faith  of  Jesus  Christ,'  as 
in  the  A.  V.  There  is  no  article.  It  does  not  mean  the  Christian 
religion,  but  trust  reposed  in  Jesus  Christ.  The  great  positive 
idea  of  the  Epistle  is  here  introduced,  that  justification  is  given  on 
condition  of  personal  faith  in  Jesus  Christ. 

even  we :  Peter  and  Paul ;  emphatic. 

believed:  came  to  have  faith.  The  verb  is  in  the  aorist, 
signifying  a  single  act  in  the  past. 

by  faith.  A  different  preposition  is  used  here,  meaning 
literally  *  out  of,'  which  might  suggest  that  faith  is  itself  the 
ground  of  justification,  if  we  had  not  just  had  the  more  exact 
expression  4  through  faith.'  Probably  Paul  has  no  subtle  distinction 
in  mind,  but  varies  the  prepositions  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  as 
he  varies  the  names — Jesus  Christ  and  Christ  Jesus. 

no  flesh:  Hebraism,  meaning  no  man.  The  sentence  is 
a  quotation  from  Ps.  cxliii.  2,  'for  in  thy  sight  shall  no  man 
living  be  justified,'  somewhat  freely  rendered.  The  LXX  has 
the  expression  '  no  flesh '  in  this  passage.  The  clause  '  by  the 
works  of  the  law'  is  not  in  the  psalm,  but  is  here  added  by  Paul. 
He  would  consider  it  appropriate  because  the  psalm  was  part  of  the 
Scriptures  of  Jews  living  under  the  law,  who  would  be  seeking 
justification  by  legal  works,  if  at  all.  In  Rom.  iii.  20  the  same 
passage  is  quoted  and  with  the  same  addition  by  Paul,  but  also 
with  the  words  '  in  his  sight,'  not  given  in  Galatians,  which  more 
certainly  identify  the  sentence  with  the  verse  from  the  psalm  where 
it  also  occurs.  The  impossibility  of  obtaining  any  other  justifica- 
tion asserted  in  order  that  we  may  be  shut  up  to  the  one  available 
justification  through  faith  in  Christ. 

17.  The  following  are  the  most  important  of  the  various 
proposed  interpretations  of  this  verse : — (1)  It  is  a  Jewish 
objection  complaining  that  since  to  abandon  the  law  is  sinful, 
if  Christ  encourages  such  conduct  he  must  be  ministering  to  sin, 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  iS  285 

is  Christ  a  minister  of  sin?    God  forbid.     For  if  I  build  18 
up  again  those  things  which  I  destroyed,  I  prove  myself 

a  conclusion  which  Paul  indignantly  repudiates  because  he  rejects 
the  premises,  and  does  not  admit  that  to  abandon  the  law  is  sinful. 
There  is  no  indication  that  Paul  is  bringing  in  an  objection  from 
any  opponent ;  and  such  an  objection  would  demand  a  more 
complete  answer  than  an  indignant  repudiation.  Moreover  it 
would  not  lead  on  to  the  next  sentence.  (2)  It  is  an  argument 
by  the  Apostle  to  shew  that  abandonment  of  the  law  is  not  sinful, 
since  if  it  were,  Christ  by  encouraging  it  would  be  ministering 
to  sin,  an  utterly  unbelievable  conclusion.  For  this  argument 
to  have  a  starting-point  there  must  have  been  some  previous 
statement  of  the  assumption  that  it  is  sinful  to  abandon  the  law. 
(3)  It  is  admitted  that  to  abandon  the  law  is  to  place  ourselves 
in  the  position  of  sinners,  not  because  it  is  wicked  to  do  this, 
but  because  we  lose  the  privileges  of  the  law  and  range  ourselves 
with  the  heathen  in  this  matter.  Yet  it  is  outrageous  to 
charge  Christ  with  ministering  to  sin.  This  view  gives  the  same 
meaning  to  the  word  '  sinners,'  with  its  touch  of  irony,  that  we 
had  in  verse  15,  i.  e.  as  equivalent  to  Gentiles,  or  heathen,  people 
out  of  the  pale  of  the  law.  Thus  we  see  how  it  is  introduced 
here.  With  the  previous  interpretations  it  comes  in  abruptly, 
apart  from  any  apparent  reason.  Then  the  expression  'found' 
best  suits  this  meaning.  It  does  not  point  to  a  definite  overt 
act,  such  as  the  abandonment  of  the  law  would  be  ;  it  indicates 
the  discovery  of  a  condition  already  existing.  The  Pauline 
Christian,  though  a  Jew,  is  seen  to  be  on  a  level  with  the 
Gentile  sinner.  He  too,  notwithstanding  his  law,  must  be 
regarded  as  a  sinner  in  order  to  be  justified  by  Christ.  Never- 
theless it  would  be  outrageous  to  say  that  Christ  brings  about 
this  condition. 

God  forbid:  lit.  Met  it  not  be';  an  indignant  repudiation  of 
an  utterly  impossible  notion. 

18.  I.  Paul  now  passes  to  the  first  person  singular,  thereby 
dropping  the  form  of  speech  suitable  for  his  expostulation  with 
Peter  and  directly  addressing  the  Galatians. 

build  up  again,  &c.  :  reconstruct  the  obligation  of  the  law, 
as  Peter  had  been  doing  at  Antioch  by  returning  to  Jewish 
exclusiveness. 

which.  I  destroyed.  There  is  no  evidence  that  Paul  had 
destroyed  the  obligations  of  the  law  before  this  by  directby 
agitating  against  them.  But  in  dispensing  with  those  obligations 
when  carrying  on  his  missionary  work  he  had  been  virtually 
destroying  them. 

I   prove   myself    a   transgressor:     in    having    previously 


286  TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  19, 20 

19  a  transgressor.    For  I  through  the  law  died  unto  the  law, 

20  that  I  might  live  unto  God.     I  have  been  crucified  with 
Christ ;  yet  I  live ;  and  yet  no  longer  I,  but  Christ  liveth 


abandoned  the  law.  The  word  'transgressor'  is  always  used  for 
one  who  breaks  the  definite  commandments  of  the  written  law, 
an  offender  against  the  law  as  such.  If  the  law  is  to  be  restored 
as  a  standard  of  judgement,  the  man  who  is  guilty  of  having 
repudiated  it  is  plainly  an  offender  against  it. 

19.  through  the  law,  &c.  :  lit.  'through  law  died  to  law.' 
The  absence  of  the  articles  helps  the  interpretation  of  the  phrase. 
It  cannot  mean  that  the  law  as  containing  types  and  prophecies 
of  Christ  tends  to  liberate  us  from  its  own  bondage,  because  this 
would  involve  allusions  to  the  specific  contents  of  the  Mosaic  law, 
the  law.  It  must  refer  to  the  operation  of  law  in  general.  This 
Paul  discusses  more  fully  in  Rom.  vii,  where  he  shews  that  it 
was  the  function  of  law  to  awaken  the  consciousness  of  guilt. 
Now  he  also  shews  that  there  is  no  escape  from  guilt  by  way 
of  law.  Therefore  the  only  liberation  must  be  found  in  ceasing 
to  live  under  the  accusing  law.  Thus  the  law,  by  making  its  yoke 
intolerable,  provokes  us  to  abandon  it. 

that  I  might  live  unto  God.  The  purpose  of  this  abandon- 
ment of  law  is  not  antinomian  licence,  but  a  life  set  in  relation 
to  God.  That  was  prevented  by  the  bondage  of  law  and  the 
oppression  of  guilt  accompanying  it.  Then  the  supreme  con- 
sideration in  life  was  our  depressing  relation  to  condemning  law. 
When  that  is  dissolved  we  are  free  to  come  into  personal  relations 
with  God.  Henceforth  the  chief  consideration  becomes  how  we 
may  adjust  our  lives  in  regard  to  God.  Thus  God  takes  the  place 
of  law. 

20.  crucified  with  Christ:  Paul's  doctrine  of  the  mystical 
union.  His  union  with  Christ  involves  a  personal  experience 
corresponding  to  the  death  of  Christ  on  the  cross,  and  produced 
by  it.  In  that  experience  his  old  life  perishes  under  the  influence 
of  the  cross  of  Christ.  Cf.  Rom.  vi.  6,  '  our  old  man  was  crucified 
with  hint ' ;  Col.  ii.  20. 

yet  I  live  ;  and  yet  no  longer  I.  The  reading  in  the  margin 
of  the  R.  V.  seems  preferable  on  account  of  the  contrast  that 
follows,  viz.  '  And  it  is  no  longer  I  that  live,  but  Christ,'  &c.  Paul 
teaches  that  crucifixion  with  Christ  is  followed  by  resurrection 
with  him  (cf.  Col  iii.  1).  Here  he  writes  of  the  new  life,  after 
death  with  regard  to  the  old  state.  So  completely  is  it  dependent 
on  Christ  and  directed  by  Christ  that  Paul  considers  it  to  be  no 
longer  his  only  life,  but  simply  Christ,  who  has  taken  possession 
of  him,  living  in  him. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  21  287 

in  me :  and  that  life  which  I  now  live  in  the  flesh  I  live 
in  faith,  the  faith  which  is  in  the  Son  of  God,  who  loved 
me,  and  gave  himself  up  for  me.     I  do  not  make  void  2 
the  grace  of  God  :  for  if  righteousness  is  through  the  law, 
then  Christ  died  for  nought. 

now :  after  the  great  change,  in  the  present  Christian 
condition. 

in  the  flesh:  lit.  'in  flesh,'  a  Hebraism  indicating  human 
life  on  earth.  Although  the  Christian  life  is  like  a  resurrection,  it 
is  still  spent  amid  material  surroundings  and  with  a  human  body. 

in  faith  :  set  in  antithesis  to  '  in  flesh,'  indicating  another 
sphere  in  which  this  new  life  is  spent.  It  is  in  the  body  and 
in  the  world,  but  not  confined  to  these  things ;  it  is  also  lived 
in  the  sphere  of  faith.  Possibly,  however  the  preposition  '  in ' 
is  instrumental  (a  Hebraism),  so  that  the  phrase  means  '  by  faith  ' : 
but  this  misses  the  antithesis  of  '  in  flesh.' 

the  Son  of  God.  Some  of  the  oldest  and  best  MSS.  read 
'God  and  Christ.'  But  in  verse  16  Paul  wrote  of  Jesus  Christ 
only  as  the  specific  object  of  the  faith  here  referred  to,  and  in 
any  case  the  clause  which  follows  can  only  refer  to  Christ. 

loved  me:  a  touching  personal  utterance  shewing  how 
deeply  the  Apostle  feels  what  he  is  writing.  The  past  tense  is 
used  because  he  is  thinking  especially  of  the  one  past  proof,  love, 
which  he  proceeds  to  specify.  The  love  of  Christ  here  appears 
as  the  reason  for  faith  in  him. 

gave  himself  np :  i.  e.  to  death  (cf.  i.  4).  The  word  is 
frequently  used  in  the  gospels  for  the  giving  up  of  Jesus  to  death 
by  God  or  by  men  (cf.  Mark  ix.  31,  x.  33).  Here  Paul  applies  it 
to  Christ's  own  act  in  surrendering  himself  to  death. 

for  me:  on  behalf  of  me,  for  my  benefit.  The  Greek 
preposition  is  hyper,  which  has  this  meaning,  not  anti,  which 
would  be  used  if  the  Apostle  meant  '  instead  of,'  in  the  sense  that 
Christ  gave  himself  to  die  instead  of  our  dying.  Whether  Paul 
would  have  said  that  or  not,  all  his  language  here  implies  is  that 
Christ's  death  was  for  our  benefit.  This  is  according  to  the 
Apostle's  invariable  custom.  He  frequently  uses  the  word  hyper 
in  this  connexion  (e.  g.  Rom.  i.  32,  ix.  3  ;  1  Cor.  i.  13,  v.  7 ;  Gal. 
iii.  13),  never  anti. 

21.  make  void:  nullify,  sometimes  rendered  'reject'  (cf.  Luke 
vii.  30  ;  1  Cor.  i.  19).  To  return  to  the  law  would  be  to  nullify  or 
reject  the  grace  which  God  has  manifested  in  the  love  of  Christ 
and  his  surrender  to  death. 

the  grace  of  God:  that  special  favour  which  was  manifested 
in  the  love  and  sacrifice  of  Christ. 


288  TO  THE  GALATIANS  2.  21 

righteousness:  primarily  ' Tightness, '  a  substantive  cor- 
responding to  the  adjective  which  means  'right'  and  'just.' 
This  is  the  sense  of  the  word  in  the  O.  T.  (cf.  Ps.  vii.  8 ; 
Prov.  viii.  20;  Isa.  lxiv.  5,  &c).  It  is  also  used  in  this  sense  in 
the  gospels  (cf.  Matt.  iii.  15,  v.  20 ;  Luke  i.  75 ;  John  xvi.  8,  &c.) 
and  other  parts  of  the  N.  T.  (cf.  Acts  x.  35  ;  Jas.  i.  20  ;  1  Pet.  ii.  24 ; 
1  John  ii.  29;  Rev.  xix.  11,  &c).  In  fact  wherever  it  is  em- 
ployed by  our  Lord  or  by  any  O.  T.  or  N.  T.  writer,  except  Paul, 
this  is  the  meaning  of  the  word.  Moreover  Paul  himself  uses 
it  in  this  sense  (cf.  Rom.  vi.  13,  16,  18,  19,  20;  2  Cor.  vi.  14; 
Eph.  v.  9,  &c.\  But  the  Apostle  also  employs  the  term  in  a 
specific  theological  sense  which  is  peculiar  to  him  among  Scripture 
authorities,  identifying  justification  with  righteousness.  Manifestly 
he  does  so  here.  In  verses  16,  17  he  discusses  justification,  which 
we  have  seen  is  simply  forgiveness  regarded  from  the  standpoint 
of  law  and  right  (see  note  on  verse  16).  Then  in  verse  21  he 
is  evidently  referring  to  the  same  subject.  That  is  clear  from 
(1)  the  use  of  the  connecting  word  'for,'  and  (2)  the  reference 
to  the  law  as  not  bringing  about  the  desired  result,  which  was 
more  fully  described  in  verses  16,  17.  Yet  it  is  not  'justification' 
that  he  names  here,  but  'righteousness.'  Righteousness  then  is 
the  condition  of  being  justified.  The  idea  is  that  the  Divine  act 
of  forgiveness  puts  the  soul  in  right  relations  with  God.  Seeing 
that  in  Paul's  teaching  those  right  relations  are  the  sources  of 
the  new  life  of  holiness,  they  must  contain  the  germs  of  righteous- 
ness in  the  old  sense  of  the  word.  i.  e.  of  a  right  character  and 
right  conduct.  When  Paul  writes  about  'righteousness  of  God' 
(Rom.  i.  17)  as  a  gift  to  us,  and  more  explicitly  as  *  righteousness 
which  is  of  God'  (Phil.  iii.  9)  he  means  forgiveness  of  sins  in  the 
first  instance  ;  but  this  forgiveness  is  viewed  as  restoring  right 
relations  with  God,  so  that  the  man  who  has  it  stands  right  with 
God.  The  same  identification  of  justification,  or  forgiveness  of  sins, 
with  righteousness  is  worked  out  more  fully  in  Romans  (iii.  21-26) 
where  Paul  first  described  '  a  righteousness  of  God '  given  to  men, 
and  then  proceeds  to  refer  to  this  as  a  '  being  justified.' 

through  the  law :  better  '  through  law ' ;  if  law  is  the  means 
by  which  righteousness  is  attained. 

for  naught:  rather  'unnecessarily,'  'without  sufficient 
reason,'  a  meaning  of  the  Greek  word  {doreavi)  not  found  in 
classic  authors,  but  met  with  in  the  LXX  (Ps.  xxxiv  [xxxv],  7  ; 
Ixviii  [lxix]  4,  quoted  in  John  xv.  25).  If  the  end  of  Christ's 
death,  which  was  to  give  us  righteousness,  put  us  in  right 
relations  with  God  through  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  could  be 
effected  in  some  other  way,  namely  by  means  of  law,  then  that 
great  sacrifice  was  unnecessary. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   3.  i,  2  289 

O  foolish  Galatians,  who  did  bewitch  you,  before  whose  3 
eyes  Jesus  Christ  was  openly  set  forth  crucified?   This  2 

II.  Doctrinal  Argument,     iii.  1 — v.  1. 

iii.  1-5.  An  appeal  to  experience.  Paul  appeals  to  the  experience 
of  the  Galatians,  whom  he  considers  to  be  quite  senseless,  since 
they  have  received  the  clearest  instruction  in  the  gospel,  and 
yet  now  are  resorting  to  the  law.  Did  they  receive  the  Spirit 
by  the  law?  If  not,  having  begun  in  the  better  way,  do  they 
expect  to  be  perfected  by  adopting  the  inferior  method  ?  Is  their 
present  exercise  of  spiritual  gifts  derived  from  works  of  law  or 
from  what  they  hear  in  faith  ? 

1.  foolisli:  senseless,  wanting  in  intelligence. 
Galatians.  See  Introduction,  p.  58 ff.  Prof.  Ramsay  points 
out  that  this  title,  drawn  from  the  name  of  the  Roman  province, 
would  be  especially  appropriate  for  those  of  the  inhabitants  who 
had  adopted  the  Graeco-Roman  civilization,  among  whom  the 
Apostle  would  be  likely  to  find  most  of  his  converts.  In  con- 
trast to  the  rest  of  the  population,  which  was  still  involved  in 
Asiatic  customs  of  thought  and  life,  these  more  cultured  people 
would  regard  themselves  as  superior  in  intelligence.  Yet  even 
they  are  behaving  senselessly.  The  personal  address  by  name 
only  occurs  here  and  in  2  Cor.  vi.  11  ;  Phil.  iv.  15  ;  1  Tim.  i.  18, 
vi.  20  ;  and  in  all  cases  the  context  shews  that  Paul  is  moved 
with  deep  feeling. 

bewitch.  The  Greek  word  (ebaskanen)  means  the  blighting 
of  the  evil  eye.  The  Galatians  are  behaving  so  senselessly  that 
they  must  be  under  a  spell.  Who  is  it  that  has  cast  an  evil  eye 
on  them? 

openly  set  forth.  The  more  usual  meaning  of  the  Greek 
word  is  '  to  write  before '  (cf.  Rom.  xv.  4 ;  Eph.  iii.  3),  and  if 
intended  here  would  refer  to  the  O.  T.  prophecies  of  Christ. 
But  it  would  be  out  of  place  to  bring  in  such  an  allusion  at  this 
point  with  reference  to  the  Galatians.  Besides,  the  expression 
'before  whose  eyes'  points  to  a  different  meaning.  Lightfoot 
renders  the  word  '  was  posted  up,'  '  placarded,'  seeing  that  it  was 
commonly  used  in  this  sense  for  public  notices  and  proclamations. 
But  is  not  this  meaning  harsh  when  applied  to  the  idea  of 
presenting  Christ  as  crucified  ?  The  root-word  {grapho)  is  used 
of  a  painter's  art — hence  our  word  '  graphic '  for  what  is  vividly 
pictorical.  Accordingly  Grimm- Thayer  suggests  here  the  meaning 
'  depict  (paint,  portray)  before  the  eyes.'  Paul  in  his  preaching 
had  vividly  portrayed  Christ  as  crucified  ;  the  picture  had  been  set 
before  the  eyes  of  the  Galatians.  For  them  to  be  bewitched  as 
by  the  evil  eye  shews  that  they  had  taken  their  eyes  off  that 
central  object  of  contemplation. 

(«)  U 


29o  TO  THE  GALATIANS   3.  3,  4 

only  would  I  learn  from  you,  Received  ye  the  Spirit  by 

3  the  works  of  the  law,  or  by  the  hearing  of  faith?    Are 
ye  so  foolish?  having  begun  in  the  Spirit,  are  ye  now 

4  perfected  in  the  flesh  ?    Did  ye  suffer  so  many  things 

crucified :  without  the  addition  '  among  you '  as  in  the  A.  V., 
which  is  absent  from  the  best  MSS.  The  notion  of  Christ  being 
crucified  afresh  among  the  Galatians  in  their  crucifixion  with  him 
and  dying  to  sin  is  not  in  Paul's  mind.  The  word  refers  to  the 
actual,  historical  crucifixion  of  Christ ;  it  stands  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence  for  emphasis,  the  significance  of  which  is  made  evident 
by  the  previous  verse.  The  Galatians  were  behaving  as  though 
the  death  of  Christ  had  not  been  necessary  to  their  salvation. 
Did  they  forget  that  it  was  as  crucified,  with  especial  reference 
to  his  cross,  that  Christ  had  been  depicted  to  them  in  Paul's 
preaching  ? 

2.  This  only,  &c.  Here  is  a  critical  dilemma.  Paul  will  be 
satisfied  if  his  correspondents  will  answer  this  one  question,  for 
that  will  settle  the  dispute.  If  they  had  the  gift  of  the  Spirit 
by  means  of  the  law,  well  and  good ;  let  them  keep  to  the  law. 
But  if  not,  they  have  no  excuse  for  turning  to  the  law. 

Received:  the  aorist  tense,  indicating  one  event  in  the  past, 
an  experience  frequently  referred  to  in  the  apostolic  church, 
when  the  Spirit  of  God  was  given  to  the  converts  (cf.  Acts  x.  44, 
xix.  20). 

the  works  of  the  law:  rather,  'works  of  law.'  See  note 
on  ii.  16. 

the  hearing-  cf  faith.  This  might  be  rendered  '  the  message,' 
as  in  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.  ;  but  as  it  is  contrasted  with  works 
it  is  more  likely  to  refer  to  the  personal  experience  of  the 
Galatians.  and  'hearing'  is  therefore  the  probable  idea. 

of  faith :  not  '  the  faith  '  as  the  substance  of  Christian  teaching, 
a  meaning  never  found  in  Paul,  or  at  least  not  so  early  as  this; 
nor  '  faith '  as  a  topic  of  preaching,  for  the  gospel  was  what  Paul 
preached  ;  but  faith  characterizing  the  hearing.  The  whole 
expression  means  '  the  hearing  which  was  with  faith.'  This 
is  the  view  of  Lipsius.  Lightfoot's  interpretation,  'which  comes 
of  faith,'  is  less  natural.  The  hearing  does  not  come  from  faith; 
but  faith  accompanies  and  characterizes  it. 

3.  having  begun  in  the  Spirit :  in  the  power  of  the  Spirit  of 
God,  the  receiving  of  which  has  just  been  mentioned. 

perfected.  The  Galatians  were  not  formally  abandoning 
Christian  grace  and  falling  back  on  mere  Judaism.  Their  position, 
as  here  indicated,  was  that  of  adding  the  observance  of  the  Jewish 
law  to  their  Christian  faith  as  a  means   of  attaining  perfection. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  3.  5  291 

in  vain?  if  it  be  indeed  in  vain.  He  therefore  that 
supplieth  to  you  the  Spirit,  and  worketh  miracles  among 
you,  doeth  he  it  by  the  works  of  the  law,  or  by  the  hearing 


This  is  different  from  the  question  at  Antioch  referred  to  in 
Acts  xv.  1,  which  made  circumcision  a  condition  of  salvation. 
Here  it  is  only  proposed  to  be  added  to  Christian  faith  as  a  means 
of  attaining  perfection. 

in  the  flesh :  by  external  ordinances,  especially  circumcision. 
The  paradox  is  in  the  notion  that  this  lower  process  could  come 
after  the  higher  in  order  to  crown  it  with  perfection.  To  imagine 
such  a  thing  is  extremely  foolish. 

4.  Did  ye  suffer,  &c.  Lightfoot  remarks,  '  The  history  in- 
deed says  nothing  of  persecutions  in  Galatia  ' ;  but  that  is  on  the 
North-Galatian  theory.  Lightfoot  himself  points  cut  that  '  the 
converts  to  the  faith  in  Pisidia  and  Lycaonia  . . .  were  exposed  to 
suffering'  (as  recorded  in  Acts  xiv.  2,  5,  19,  22),  and  now  it  seems 
to  be  proved  that  the  Galatians  to  whom  the  Epistle  is  directed 
were  the  people  of  these  very  districts  (see  Introduction,  p.  58  ff.). 

in  vain.  The  history  in  Acts  shews  that  the  persecution 
from  which  the  Galatians  suffered  had  been  stirred  up  by  the 
Jews.  But  if  the  Christians  had  accepted  Judaism,  of  course 
this  persecution  would  not  have  occurred.  And  now  if  after 
enduring  it  they  proceed  to  adopt  the  Jewish  religion,  all  the}' 
have  suffered  for  their  distinctive  Gentile  Christian  faith  goes 
for  nothing.  Why  did  they  make  the  bold  stand  before  persecu- 
tion if  afterwards  they  would  voluntarily  concede  the  very  point 
on  which  the  persecution  turned  ? 

if  it  be  indeed  in  vain.  The  Apostle  cannot  really  believe 
them  to  be  so  completely  stultifying  themselves. 

5.  He:  God,  who  is  alwaj^s  regarded  as  the  Giver  of  the 
Spirit. 

supplieth:  an  emphatic  word  meaning  'to  bestow  liberally.' 
miracles :  lit.  '  powers ' ;  but  one  of  the  usual  words  in  "the 
N.  T.  for  those  events  which  we  call  '  miracles '  (cf.  Mark  vi.  2, 
5,  14,  &c).  Paul  here  assumes  that  miracles  were  occurring 
among  the  Galatians.  In  writing  to  the  Corinthians  he  dis- 
tinguishes '  workings  of  miracles  '  ( '  powers ')  from  i  gifts  of 
healing'  (1  Cor.  xii.  9,  10).  Possibly  by  '  miracles'  he  means 
the  exorcism  of  demons,  one  of  the  works  of  the  Spirit  most 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  early  church.  Paul  appeals  to  the 
testimony  of  these  miracles.  On  what  condition  were  they 
brought  about — by  performing  works  of  law?  or  as  a  result  of 
hearing  with  faith  the  message  of  the  gospel?  Experience  must 
tell  the  Galatians  that  the  latter  was  the  case. 

U    2 


292  TO  THE  GALATIANS  3.  6, 7 

6  of  faith  ?   Even  as  Abraham  believed  God,  and  it  was 

7  reckoned  unto  him  for  righteousness.     Know  therefore 
that  they  which  be  of  faith,  the  same  are  sons  of  Abraham. 

iii.  6-9.  The  example  of  Abraham.  Paul  appeals  to  the 
classical  instance  of  Abraham,  whose  faith  was  reckoned  to  him 
for  righteousness.  Then  surely  those  who  have  faith  are  the 
true  sons  of  Abraham.  The  Scriptures  predicted  the  justification 
of  the  Gentiles  by  faith  in  the  promise  of  Abraham's  blessing, 
which  blessing  the  men  of  faith  share  with  the  patriarch. 

6.  Quoted  from  the  LXX  of  Gen.  xv.  6 ;  cited  again  in  Rom. 
iv.  3  ;  Jas.  ii.  23. 

Abraham.  This  patriarch  was  venerated  by  the  Jews  as 
their  great  religious  hero,  and  it  was  a  common  practice  for  Rabbis 
to  argue  points  of  difference  with  reference  to  his  life-story, 
seeking  to  determine  their  controversies  by  the  precedents  they 
found  in  it.  Therefore  Paul  could  distinctly  score  a  point  by 
shewing  that  this  supreme  historical  authority  supported  his  teach- 
ing about  faith. 

believed  God.  The  specific  act  of  faith  was  concerned 
with  God's  promise  of  a  son  to  Abraham  in  his  old  age  and 
numerous  descendants. 

for  righteousness:  not  'instead  of,'  but  'as  equivalent  to 
righteousness.'  The  preposition  (eis)  is  used  in  the  sentences, 
'  the}'  shall  be  one  flesh'  (Gen.  ii.  24),  lit.  'for  (eis)  one  flesh'; 
and  'they  shall  be  my  people'  (Jer.  xxxi.  33;  cf.  Heb.  viii.  10), 
lit.  *  to  me  for  (eis)  a  people.'  God  takes  Abraham's  faith  in  His 
promise  as  itself  equivalent  to  righteousness,  apart  from  the  perform- 
ance of  any  external  actions  by  the  patriarch. 

7.  Know.  The  R.  V.  margin  has  'Ye  perceive,'  and  Lightfoot 
advocates  the  indicative  '  Ye  know.'  But  did  the  Galatians  know 
what  Paul  proceeds  to  state  here  ?  It  rather  follows  as  a  con- 
sequence of  the  previous  verse.  If  the  specific  characteristic 
of  Abraham  is  faith,  then  they  who  share  in  his  faith  are  his 
true  children.  The  point  of  the  argument  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  Judaizing  tendency  of  the  Galatians  revealed  in  them  a  desire 
to  come  in  for  the  privileges  of  the  sons  of  Abraham  which  Jews 
claimed  to  enjoy.  They  will  do  that.  Paul  argues,  by  resembling 
Abraham  in  the  righteousness  God  recognized  in  him,  i.  e.  in 
possessing  faith. 

they  which  be  of  faith :  lit.  '  they  who  come  from  faith,'  in 
accordance  with  a  common  idiom.  Cf.  'them  that  are  factious' 
(lit.  '  them  that  are  of  faction,'  Rom.  ii.  8\  '  they  which  are  of  the 
law'  (Rom.  iv.  14%  Though  the  idiom  in  John  expresses  origin, 
that  idea  is  lost  sight  of  in  common  usage.  Thus  the  phrase 
simply  means  '  men  of  faith,'  '  men  who  have  faith.' 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  3.  8-10  293 

And  the  scripture,  foreseeing  that  God  would  justify  the   8 
Gentiles  by  faith,  preached  the  gospel  beforehand  unto 
Abraham,  saying,  In  thee  shall  all  the  nations  be  blessed. 
So  then  they  which  be  of  faith  are  blessed  with  the  faith-   9 
ful  Abraham.     For  as  many  as  are  of  the  works  of  the  10 
law  are  under  a  curse :  for  it  is  written,  Cursed  is  every 


8.  the  scripture,  foreseeing*.  The  singular  means  some  specific 
passage  of  Scripture  (cf.  Mark  xii.  10 ;  Luke  iv.  21 ;  John  vii.  38  ; 
Rom.  iv.  3),  the  plural  'Scriptures'  being  used  for  the  O.  T.  as 
a  whole  (cf.  Mark  xii.  24  ;  Luke  xxiv.  27  ;  John  v.  39  ;  Rom.  xv.  4). 
The  passage  of  Scripture  is  here  personified  as  though  it  were 
a  teacher.  In  verse  23  a  passage  of  Scripture  is  supposed  to 
be  active — 'the  scripture  hath  shut  up,'  &c. 

preached  the  gospel  beforehand.  The  promise  to  Abraham 
is  taken  as  a  proclamation  of  the  gospel  of  blessing  for  the 
heathen. 

In  thee,  &c. :  a  sentence  combining  Gen.  xii.  3,  'in  thee 
shall  all  the  families  of  the  earth  be  blessed,'  and  Gen.  xviii.  18, 
'all  the  nations  of  the  earth  shall  be  blessed  in  him.'  O.T.  critics 
consider  these  passages  to  mean  that  the  nations  will  bless 
themselves  by  Abraham,  taking  his  blessing  as  the  type  of 
blessing  they  will  desire  for  themselves.  Be  that  as  it  ma}', 
evidently  Paul  understands  them  to  convey  a  distinct  promise 
of  blessing  which  the  heathen  are  to  receive  through  Abraham. 

9.  faithful:  possessing  faith,  believing  ;  not  here 'trustworthy.' 
We  have  this  meaning  elsewhere  (cf.  2  Cor.  vi.  15,  '  a  believer,' 
for  the  same  Greek  word). 

iii.  10-14.  The  curse  of  the  Jaw.  Paul  proceeds  further.  Not 
only  is  the  law  needless  and  superfluous,  as  the  instance  of 
Abraham  shews,  it  is  positively  hurtful.  Those  who  go  the  way  of 
the  law  are  actually  under  a  curse,  since  that  is  threatened  against 
all  who  do  not  keep  it  with  absolute  fidelity.  That  nobody  is 
justified  by  law  is  proved  by  the  Scripture  statement  that  the 
righteous  shall  live  by  faith,  which  is  not  the  way  of  the  law. 
Christ,  by  becoming  a  curse  for  us  in  his  crucifixion,  redeemed 
us  from  the  law's  curse  in  order  that  through  him  Abraham's 
blessing  might  come  to  the  Gentiles  and  we  receive  the  promised 
gift  of  the  Spirit. 

10.  of  the  works  of  the  law.  For  the  idiom  see  note  on 
verse  7,  '  they  which  be  of  faith.'  Here  it  means  the  people  whose 
characteristic  way  in  religion  is  to  observe  the  works  of  the  law. 

it  is  written:    a  phrase  indicating  authoritative  Scripture. 


294  TO  THE  GALATIANS    3.  n,  13 

one  which  continueth  not  in  all  things  that  are  written  in 

11  the  book  of  the  law,  to  do  them.     Now  that  no  man  is 
justified  by  the  law  in  the  sight  of  God,  is  evident :  for, 

12  The  righteous  shall  live  by  faith;    and   the  law  is  not 
of  faith  ;   but,  He  that  doeth  them  shall  live  in  them. 


It  is  met  with  in  contemporary  Greek  in  Egypt  for  any  au- 
thoritative document  to  which  an  appeal  is  made. 

Cursed,  &c.  Deut.  xxvii.  26,  the  conclusion  of  the  curses 
pronounced  on  Mount  Ebal.  Since  nobody  ever  has  kept  the 
whole  law  it  follows  that  all  who  are  under  the  law  are  subject 
to  its  curse.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  words  '  every  one  '  and 
•  all  things '  are  not  in  the  Hebrew,  although  they  occur  in  the 
LXX  Greek  from  which  Paul  quotes  them.  Lightfoot  points 
out  that  Jerome  attributed  the  omission  to  a  wilful  corruption 
of  the  text  on  the  part  of  the  Jews  for  fear  they  should  appear 
to  be  under  the  curse — a  groundless  charge. 

the  book  of  the  law :  the  Pentateuch. 

11.  justified.     See  note  on  ii.  16. 

by  the  law :  lit.  '  in  law,'  meaning  either  (1)  '  by  means  of 
law,'  according  to  the  common  Hebrew  idiom  which  uses  the 
preposition  'in'  instrumentally  ;  or  (2)  'in  the  region  of  law,' 
in  the  law  religion.  Lipsius  prefers  the  latter  meaning;  but 
the  absence  of  the  article  favours  the  former,  which  is  both  in 
the  A.  V.  and  in  the  R.  V. 

The  righteous  shall  live,  &c.  :  quoted  from  Hab.  ii.  4  ; 
also  cited  in  Rom.  i.  17,  and  Heb.  x.  38.  The  LXX  has  '  my 
righteous  man.'  Paul  corrects  this  by  returning  to  the  Hebrew, 
which  has  not  the  pronoun  'my.'  In  the  language  of  the  prophet 
'  faith  '  stands  for  '  fidelity' ;  so  that  the  sentence  meant  originally 
'  the  righteous  man  shall  live  by  his  fidelity,'  that  is  to  say,  as 
the  context  shews,  he  shall  be  preserved  amidst  the  dangers  of 
the  Chaldaean  invasion  because  of  his  steadfastness  and  loyalty 
to  God.     But  of  course  such  fidelity  is  the  outcome  of  faith. 

righteous:  better  than  'just'  as  in  the  A.  V.  The  word 
does  not  mean  '  the  strict,'  '  the  upright,'  simply ;  but  it  has  the 
more  comprehensive  sense  of  general  righteousness. 

12.  not  of  faith  :  not  possessing  faith  as  its  characteristic 
principle.  The  preposition  {ek)  literally  means  'out  of  and 
Lightfoot  gives  it  that  signification  here ;  but  see  note  on 
verse  7. 

He  that  doeth,  &c.  :  quoted  from  Lev.  xviii.  5. 
in   them:    meaning    'by   means   of    them,'    the    Hebraistic 
instrumental  sense  of  'in.' 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  3.  13  295 

Christ  redeemed  us  from  the  curse  of  the  law,  having  13 
become  a  curse  for  us  :  for  it  is  written,  Cursed  is  every 


13.  redeemed:  not  the  usual  Scripture  word  for  redemption 
(apoltttrosis),  which  directs  attention  to  the  consequent  liberation. 
The  Greek  word  used  here  (exegorasen)  points  rather  to  the  act 
of  buying.  It  might  be  rendered  'bought  up,'  but  it  is  commonly 
employed  for  the  ransom  of  slaves.  The  word  is  in  the  aorist 
sense,  indicating  a  single  act,  which  the  context  shews  to  be  the 
dying  of  Christ. 

us :  Paul  and  other  Christian  Jews  who  had  been  under  the 
law  and  therefore  liable  to  its  curse. 

the  curse  of  the  law.     See  note  on  verse  10. 

having  become  a  curse.  The  Hebrew  language,  being 
deficient  in  adjectives,  frequently  employs  substantives  with  an 
adjectival  meaning.  The  expression  'becoming  a  curse'  in 
our  language  would  most  naturally  mean  'coming  to  be  a  means 
of  cursing  people.'  Of  course  that  is  not  the  idea  here  ;  Paul 
means  (  becoming  accursed,'  or  '  coming  under  a  curse.'  Similarly 
he  writes  of  Christ  being  •  made  to  be  sin  '  (2  Cor.  v.  21).  This 
language  might  be  interpreted  by  readers  of  the  O.  T.  with 
reference  to  the  transactions  of  the  'Day  of  Atonement,'  when 
the  goat,  over  the  head  of  which  the  high-priest  had  pronounced 
the  sins  of  the  people,  was  driven  out  to  the  demon  of  the 
wilderness  as  an  accursed  thing  (see  Lev.  xvi.  8,  21,  22).  The 
miserable  fate  of  this  creature  is  powerfully  portrayed  in  Holman 
Hunt's  picture  of  '  The  Scapegoat.' 

for  us :  on  our  behalf.     See  ii.  20,  note. 

for  it  is  written :  appeal  to  the  authority  of  Scripture.  See 
note  on  verse  10. 

Cursed  is  every  one,  &c. :  quoted  from  Deut.  xxi.  23  in 
the  LXX.  The  Hebrew  original  is,  '  for  he  that  is  hanged  is 
accursed  of  God.'  To  be  hanged,  impaled,  or  crucified  was 
reckoned  as  undergoing  an  accursed  form  of  punishment.  If 
it  was  brought  about  under  the  law  it  was  regarded  as  the 
infliction  of  God's  curse.  Now  Christ  suffered  from  one  of  these 
horrible  kinds  of  death.  Consequently,  Paul  argues,  the  curse 
of  it  fell  on  him.  Yet  the  Apostle  does  not  give  the  full  phrase 
1  accursed  of  God,''  for  he  could  not  apply  that  to  Christ  whom  he 
would  not  think  of  as  coming  under  God's  curse.  Still,  as  Christ 
died  the  accursed  death  in  the  mere  fact  that  he  was  crucified, 
that  curse,  the  very  curse  of  being  crucified,  fell  on  Christ.  His 
being  crucified  was  his  endurance  of  the  curse ;  so  awful  a  death 
could  not  be  thought  of  as  anything  short  of  a  curse.  The  teaching 
of  the  whole  verse  is  that  by  submitting  to  that  accursed  death  on 
our  behalf  Jesus  Christ  freed  us  from  the  curse  of  the  law. 


296  TO  THE  GALATIANS   3.  14,  15 

14  one  that  hangeth  on  a  tree :  that  upon  the  Gentiles 
might  come  the  blessing  of  Abraham  in  Christ  Jesus ; 
that  we  might  receive  the  promise  of  the  Spirit  through 
faith. 

1 5  Brethren,  I  speak  after  the  manner  of  men  :  Though 
it  be  but  a  man's   covenant,   yet  when   it   hath   been 

14.  that  upon  the  Gentiles,  &c.  The  purpose  of  Christ's 
redemption  is  that  the  Gentiles  might  receive  the  blessing  of 
Abraham.  A  gap  in  Paul's  argument  is  here  apparent.  He  has 
just  spoken  of  deliverance  from  the  curse  of  the  law.  Now  he 
assumes  that,  as  a  consequence,  the  law  itself  ceases  to  be  binding 
The  implied  idea  is  that,  if  it  has  lost  its  sanction  in  the  punishment 
it  threatens,  it  ceases  to  be  effective.  Consequently  it  is  now 
a  dead  letter.  Therefore,  in  spite  of  its  proscriptions,  the  Gentiles 
whom  it  had  excluded  from  the  privileges  of  Israel  are  now  able 
to  enjoy  them. 

the  blessing  of  Abraham.     See  verse  8. 

in  Christ  Jesus:  by  spiritual  union  with  Christ  Jesus. 

we.  Here  Paul  joins  himself  with  the  Gentiles.  The  pronoun 
is  now  most  comprehensive,  embracing  all  Christians. 

the  promise  of  the  Spirit:  not  the  promise  made  by  the 
Spirit,  but  the  promised  gift  which  consists  in  the  Holy  Spirit 
bestowed  on  Christians;  because  (1)  Paul  has  not  spoken  of 
this  promise  as  coming  from  the  Spirit ;  he  has  referred  it  to 
Scripture  personified  ;  and  (2)  he  continually  treats  the  gift  of 
the  Spirit  as  the  chief  present  blessing  of  the  gospel  (cf.  verse  5). 
This  he  takes  to  be  part  of  Abraham's  blessing  ;  elsewhere  he 
calls  it  the  ' firstfruits '  (Rom.  viii.  23). 

through  faith:  an  emphatic  final  clause.  This  promised 
gift  is  received  by  means  of  faith,  not  by  works  of  law,  as  the 
Galatians  are  bewitched  into  imagining. 

iii.  15-18.  The  ancient  covenant.  Taking  an  analogy  from 
human  custom  Paul  points  out  that  a  covenant  which  has  once 
been  confirmed  cannot  be  set  aside.  Such  was  God's  promise 
to  Abraham  with  its  application  to  Christ.  The  law  which  was 
430  years  later  than  the  confirmation  of  the  covenant  could  not 
supersede  it.  And  yet  if  the  inheritance  were  to  come  by  the  law 
the  promise  would  be  neutralized. 

15.  Brethren:  an  urgent  and  affectionate  address  indicating 
the  Apostle's  desire  to  convince. 

after  the  manner  of  men  :  according  to  the  analogy  of  men's 
common  actions  in  the  world  (cf.  Rom.  iii.  5  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  8, 
xv.  32). 

but   a  man's :    introducing  an  a  fortiori  argument.      Even 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   3.  15  297 

confirmed,  no  one  maketh  it  void,  or  addeth  thereto. 

a  man's  covenant  duly  executed  is  inviolable  ;  much  more  then 
must  this  be  the  case  with  God's  covenant. 

covenant:  the  Greek  word  {diaiheke)  usually  means  a  'will.' 
It  has  been  generally  supposed  that  this  meaning  only  occurs  once 
in  the  Bible  (Heb.  ix.  15-17),  and  that  in  all  other  cases  the  word 
means  a  formal  agreement  between  two  parties.  This  sense 
is  given  to  it  in  the  LXX,  where  the  translators  employ  it  as  their 
rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  for  'covenant'  {beriih),  probably 
preferring  it  to  the  usual  Greek  word  for  'covenant'  (suntheke), 
because  the  Divine  covenant  is  an  arrangement  made  by  God 
which  men  accept  from  Him,  not  a  bargain  settled  on  equal  terms. 
It  is  the  classic  use  of  the  word  for  a  'will '  or  'testament'  that 
gives  us  our  popular  titles  of  the  two  parts  of  the  Bible — the  '  Old 
Testament '  and  the  '  New  Testament ' — really  the  Old  and  New 
Covenants.  But  now  a  flood  of  light  has  been  thrown  on  this 
remarkable  word  by  means  of  the  Greek  papyri  recently  discovered 
in  Egypt.  Prof.  Ramsay  shews,  on  the  testimony  of  Messrs. 
Grenfell  and  Hunt,  how  the  wills  that  have  been  found  among 
those  documents,  and  the  Greek  customs  concerning  them,  illustrate 
Paul's  statements  here.  Accordingly  he  argues  that  in  the  present 
case  the  word  means  a  '  will '  and  not  a  '  covenant.'  The  following 
considerations  point  in  this  direction  :  (1)  The  phrase  'after  the 
manner  of  men '  indicating  the  analogy  of  ordinary  human 
practice,  and  therefore  not  the  special  LXX  use  of  the  word ; 
(2)  the  mention  of  an  inheritance ;  (3)  the  Greek  custom  which 
made  the  will  a  public  document  and  irrevocable  even  before  the 
death  of  the  testator,  though  the  Attic  law  allowed  of  codicils. 
Nevertheless,  while  Paul  is  apparently  appealing  to  the  example 
of  a  Greek  'will'  for  his  argument,  it  is  evident  that  he  has  the 
O.  T.  'covenant'  also  in  mind,  since  he  argues  from  its  history. 
Thus  he  seems  to  apply  the  Greek  usage  concerning  wills  to  the 
ancient  covenant,  without  considering  any  difference  of  meaning 
in  the  two  applications  of  the  word.  The  nature  of  the  Greek 
'  will,'  as  public  and  unchangeable  when  once  executed,  would 
assimilate  it  to  such  a  covenant  as  we  meet  with  in  the  O.  T., 
an  agreement  between  two  parties,  but  really  determined  in  the 
first  instance  by  one,  since  it  is  God's  covenant  offered  to  man. 

confirmed.  A  Greek  will  had  to  be  lodged  in  the  Record 
Office  and  there  examined,  and  if  found  valid  duly  authenticated. 

no  one  xnaketh  it  void,  &c.  :  according  to  the  Greek  custom, 
even  during  the  life  of  the  testator.  The  Roman  custom,  on  which 
our  law  is  founded,  was  different. 

addeth  thereto:  fresh  clauses,  codicils.  The  Judaizers 
treated  the  law  as  something  subsequently  added  to  the  original 
agreement  with  Abraham.     But  inasmuch  as  that  was  a  covenant 


298  TO  THE  GALATIANS  3.   16,  17 

j  6  Now  to  Abraham  were  the  promises  spoken,  and  to  his 
seed.     He  saith  not,  And  to  seeds,  as  of  many ;  but  as 

1 7  of  one,  And  to  thy  seed,  which  is  Christ.  Now  this  I 
say ;  A  covenant  confirmed  beforehand  by  God,  the  law, 
which  came  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  after,  doth  not 

or  will,  ordinary  human  usage  in  Greek  society  was  contrary 
to  such  an  interference  with  its  original  provisions. 

16.  promises  :  in  the  plural.    Abraham  received  more  than  one 
promise  (see  Gen.  xiii.  15,  xvii.  8). 

seed :  Hebraism  for  ;  children,' '  descendants.'  The  reference 
is  to  Gen.  xiii.  15,  16. 

not ...  to  seeds,  &c.  Great  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  in  the 
attempt  to  prove  the  formal  validity  of  Paul's  argument  here  ;  but 
it  is  only  reasonable  to  admit  that  he  was  using  a  Rabbinical  method 
of  treating  Scripture  which  cannot  be  made  to  agree  with  exact 
exegesis.  ( t )  The  word  'seed'  in  the  Hebrew  original  is  collective, 
and  stands  for  any  number  of  seeds,  the  plural  only  being  used  for 
different  kinds  of  seeds  or  for  crops.  (2)  The  narrative  in  Genesis 
distinctly  refers  to  the  multitude  of  Abraham's  descendants,  and 
makes  no  reference  to  one  particular  descendant  who  is  to  inherit 
the  promises.  Nevertheless  the  Rabbis  applied  these  promises  to 
the  Messiah,  and  Paul  was  following  a  Jewish  usage  in  the  specific 
personal  application  he  made  of  them.  While  his  logic  might  not 
be  called  sound,  the  point  to  which  he  was  coming  could  not  be 
confuted,  since  it  was  in  Christ  that  the  promises  to  Abraham 
were  fulfilled. 

17.  confirmed :  see  note  on  verse  15. 
beforehand:  before  the  law-giving. 

the  law:  the  Mosaic  law,  which  was  acknowledged  in  the 
Pentateuch. 

four  hundred  and  thirty  year3  after :  i.  e.  after  Abraham 
received  the  covenant.  The  figure  seems  to  be  taken  from  Exod.  xii. 
40,  where,  however,  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  430  is  given  as  the 
number  of  years  for  the  sojourn  in  Egypt.  The  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  and  the  LXX  correct  that  by  reading,  instead  of 
'  in  Egypt,'  the  words  '  in  the  land  of  Eg3'pt  and  in  the  land 
of  Caanan.'  Paul  here  follows  the  LXX  reading.  Josephus  also 
follows  this  reckoning  in  one  passage  (Antiq.  ii.  15.  22),  though 
elsewhere  he  follows  the  reckoning  of  the  Hebrew  text  {Antiq.  ii. 
9.  1  ;  Bell.  Ltd  .v.  9.  4),  which  is  borne  out  by  Gen.  xv.  13,  where 
400  years  of  oppression  in  Egypt  are  predicted,  a  prediction  quoted 
by  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  6).  The  obscurity  of  the  early  history  of 
Israel  renders  it  impossible  for  us  to  determine  which  reckoning 
may  be  nearest  the  facts  of  the  case. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  3.   18,  19  299 

disannul,  so  as  to  make  the  promise  of  none  effect.     For  18 
if  the  inheritance  is  of  the  law,  it  is  no  more  of  promise : 
but  God  hath  granted  it  to  Abraham  by  promise.     What  19 
then  is  the  law?  It  was  added  because  of  transgressions, 

doth  not  disannul.  The  later  law  cannot  set  aside  the  earlier 
covenant,  since  by  its  nature  this  is  made  for  ever  unalterable. 
Yet  the  Judaizing  movement  in  Galatia  assumed  that  to  be  the 
case,  more  or  less,  by  requiring  something  beyond  faith,  although 
in  the  case  of  Abraham  faith  had  been  the  sole  condition  of  the 
covenant,  God  reckoning  that  for  righteousness. 

disannul :  an  old  English  word,  an  intensive  form  of  annul. 
Thus  Shakespeare  has  it : — 

'  Then  Warwick  disannuls  great  John  of  Gaunt'  (3  Henry  VI,  iii.  3). 
The  Greek  word  is  the  negative  form  of  the  word  previously 
rendered  '  confirmed '  (verses  15, 1 7).  Being  once  ;  confirmed,'  the 
covenant  cannot  be  subsequently  made  unconfirmed  so  as  to  have 
its  provisions  invalid. 

IS.  the  inheritance:  as  according  to  will,  Abraham's  blessing 
passing  on  to  his  '  seed.' 

of  the  law  :  lit.  '  out  of  law,'  law  regarded  as  the  source  from 
which  it  is  derived. 

no  more :  no  longer  ;  it  had  been  a  matter  of  promise  from 
Abraham's  time  for  those  430  years.  On  the  supposed  hypothesis 
this  would  be  the  case  no  longer. 

of  promise.  The  absence  of  the  article  before  the  word 
1  law'  as  well  as  before  this  word  brings  the  contained  ideas  into 
comparison — law  versus  promise. 

iii.  19-29.  The  place  and  function  of  the  law.  Having  shewn 
that  the  law  cannot  supersede  the  older  covenant  Paul  proceeds 
to  discuss  its  place  in  the  Divine  economy  of  history.  Tempor- 
arily necessitated  for  the  sake  of  transgressions,  it  came  througli 
intermediary  angels,  by  way  of  a  mediator  ;  while  God  in  giving 
and  executing  His  promises  requires  no  such  intermediaries.  Not 
that  the  law  stands  in  any  way  opposed  to  God's  promises.  If  it 
could  have  given  life  it  would  have  been  admitted  to  be  the  way 
to  righteousness.  But  what  the  O.  T.  does  is  to  confine  everything 
in  subjection  to  sin  in  order  that  they  who  have  faith  in  Christ  may 
thus  receive  the  promised  blessing. 

19.  What  then  is  the  law?  The  argument  seems  to  have  led 
up  to  the  conclusion  that  the  law  was  a  mere  superfluity,  even  an 
unwarrantable  intrusion.  It  is  necessary  then  to  see  what  the 
law  really  is. 

added :  i.  e.  in  addition  to  the  covenant. 


3oo  TO  THE  GALATIANS  3.  20 

till  the  seed  should  come  to  whom  the  promise  hath  been 

made  ;  and  it  was  ordained  through  angels  by  the  hand 

20  of  a  mediator.    Now  a  mediator  is  not  a  mediator  of  one  ; 

because  of  transgressions  :  not  in  order  to  prevent  trans- 
gressions, for  the  context  shews  no  such  purpose  in  the  law ;  nor 
in  order  to  punish  transgressions  ;  but,  according  to  Paul's  peculiar 
conception  of  the  law,  in  order  to  bring  out  transgressions  as 
clearly  acknowledged  breaches  of  law.  Therefore  he  uses  the 
almost  technical  word  '  transgression,'  which  means  a  breach 
of  law,  not  the  more  common  word  'sin.'  Of  course  Paul  could 
not  deny  the  obvious,  immediate  purpose  of  the  law  as  the  Israelite 
code  to  be  in  part  the  restraint  of  evildoing.  But  much  of  this 
law  did  not  concern  crime  or  ethics  ;  much  of  it  was  purely 
ceremonial.  Besides,  with  Paul  the  supreme  Divine  purpose  was 
much  more  than  the  immediate  end  to  be  served.  That  purpose, 
he  held,  was  to  convert  vague,  dormant  sin  into  what  could  be 
recognized  as  the  transgression  of  definite  precepts.  Cf.  Rom. 
vii.  9 :  '  when  the  commandment  came,  sin  revived  '  (or  '  sprang 
into  life  '). 

the  seed :  Christ  (cf.  verse  16).  The  law  was  to  do  its  work 
in  bringing  out  transgression  down  to  the  time  of  Christ— no 
longer. 

through  angels.  The  Rabbis  held  that  angels  assisted  in  the 
giving  of  the  law,  basing  the  idea  on  the  words  ;  he  came  from 
the  ten  thousands  of  holy  ones  '  (Deut.  xxxiii.  2,  R.  V.)  This  idea 
is  referred  to  in  Stephen's  speech  (Acts  vii.  53).  It  is  also  found 
injosephus  (Antiq.  xv.  5.  3).  Paul  mentions  it  here  to  indicate  the 
inferiority  of  the  law  to  the  covenant  which  God  gave  directly  to 
Abraham.  If  it  be  said  that  the  O.  T.  does  not  warrant  such 
a  belief,  at  all  events  the  Apostle's  word  would  serve  as  an 
argumentum  ad  homines,  since  his  Jewish  opponents  would  accept 
this  view  of  the  law-giving. 

a  mediator :  an  intermediary,  i.  e.  Moses.  The  specific 
notion  of  mediation  in  a.  quarrel  is  not  here  suggested. 

20.  Lightfoot  observes  that  '  the  number  of  interpretations 
of  this  passage  is  said  to  mount  up  to  250  or  300.'  His  own  view 
is  that  now  most  generally  adopted,  viz.  :  The  very  idea  of  media- 
tion supposes  at  least  two  persons  between  whom  the  mediation 
is  carried  on.  That  was  the  case  with  the  law.  There  were  two 
parties  to  it,  God  and  Israel  ;  and  therefore  it  was  conditioned  by 
the  action  of  each  party.  But  it  is  different  in  the  case  of  the 
promise.  God  gives  this  promise.  Thus  there  is  but  one  party 
to  it,  for  God  is  one.  Therefore  the  promise  is  absolute  and 
unconditional.  Another  interpretation  takes  the  word  '  one ' 
qualitatively,  understanding  it  to  mean  that  God  is  not  divided  in 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   3.  21,22  301 

but  God  is  one.    Is  the  law  then  against  the  promises  of  21 
God  ?    God  forbid :   for  if  there  had  been  a  law  given 
which  could  make  alive,  verily  righteousness  would  have 
been  of  the  law.     Howbeit  the  scripture  hath  shut  up  all  22 
things  under  sin,  that  the   promise  by  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ  might  be  given  to  them  that  believe. 


will  and  counsel,  so  that  there  can  be  no  other  will  in  Him  conflict- 
ing with  the  will  which  gave  the  promise  ;  but  this  does  not  suit 
the  previous  clause  so  well.  Then  there  is  the  view  that,  since 
a  mediator  requires  two  parties,  and  God  is  one,  man,  or  specifically 
Israel,  must  be  the  other.  But  Paul  does  not  draw  that  conclusion, 
nor  would  it  be  in  place. 

21.  promises.     For  the  plural  form  see  note  on  verse  16. 
God  forbid.     See  note  on  ii.  17. 

make  alive :  more  than  justify ;  an  actual  personal  change 
of  condition  from  death  in  sin  to  life  in  God.  Cf.  ii.  20,  iii.  11  ; 
Rom.  vi.  23. 

righteousness.  See  note  on  ii.  21.  This  is  here  closely 
associated  with  the  idea  of  making  alive.  He  who  is  justified 
and  therefore  has  righteousness  is,  according  to  Paul's  teaching, 
ipso  facto  endowed  with  the  gift  of  eternal  life.  Cf.  Rom.  v.  21  : 
1  that,  as  sin  reigned  in  death,  even  so  might  grace  reign  through 
righteousness  unto  eternal  life,''  &c.  The  life  is  a  consequence  of 
the  righteousness. 

The  whole  verse  is  the  answer  to  a  supposed  objection.  If,  as 
Paul  has  just  been  saying,  the  law  is  so  different  from  the  promises, 
must  it  not  be  in  conflict  with  them  and  therefore  after  all  nullify 
them  ?  That  would  be  so  if  the  law  were  the  Divinely  appointed 
means  of  conferring  the  gift  of  eternal  life.  Then  of  course  it 
would  be  the  way  to  righteousness.     But  it  is  nothing  of  the  kind. 

22.  the  scripture:  apparently  a  single  passage  in  the  O. T., 
personified  as  in  verse  8.  See  note  on  that  verse.  But  since 
Paul  does  not  here  cite  any  such  passage  it  majr  be  that  he  is 
using  the  singular  '  scripture '  for  the  Scriptures  generally,  though 
this  would  be  contrary  to  custom. 

shut  up :  as  in  prison  ;  stronger  than  '  conclude '  (A.  V.). 

all  thing's:  neuter  for  comprehensiveness,  as  we  say  'the 
whole  world '  when  we  mean  '  all  mankind.'  Cf.  Col.  i.  20,  '  to 
reconcile  all  things.' 

under  sin:  sin  being  the  tyrant  holding  the  world  in  sub- 
jection. 

that:  indicating  the  purpose  of  the  universal  imprisonment. 
It  is  to  drive  men  to  resort  to  the  sole  method  of  escape. 


302  TO  THE  GALATIANS   3.  23,  24 

23  But  before  faith  came,  we  were  kept  in  ward  under  the 
law,  shut  up  unto  the  faith  which  should  afterwards  be 

24  revealed.    So  that  the  law  hath  been  our  tutor  to  bring  us 

the  promise  :  not  the  word  promising,  but  the  thing  promised, 
i.  e.  Abraham's  blessing,  now  interpreted  by  Paul  as  developed  into 
the  gift  of  righteousness  leading  to  eternal  life.  This  is  implied 
in  the  references  to  'making  alive'  and  'righteousness'  in  the 
previous  verse.  What  the  law  could  not  do  is  conferred  in  the 
promise. 

by  faith:  lit.  *  from,'  or  '  out  of  faith.'  the  same  preposition 
(ek)  that  is  translated  'of  in  the  phrase  '  of  the  law'  (verse  21). 
It  is  a  pity  the  Revisers  did  not  mark  the  antithesis  by  translating 
this  preposition  in  the  same  way  in  each  case.  The  blessing  does 
not  spring  from  law  ;  it  springs  from  faith. 

in  Jesus  Christ :  as  the  object  of  faith. 

them  that  believe  :  them  that  have  faith — in  Greek  the  verbal 
form  of  the  word  rendered  'faith.' 

23.  faith:  rather,  'this  faith'  ;  //'/.  'the  faith,'  which  however 
might  seem  to  mean  '  the  Christian  religion,'  a  sense  not  given  to 
the  expression  at  so  early  a  date  as  the  Epistle.  Paul  means  '  the 
faith  just  mentioned,'  i.  e.  faith  in  Christ.  His  idea  is  that  before 
'this  faith'  came  the  Jews  were  imprisoned  under  the  law. 

we :  Paul  as  a  Jew  and  other  Jews  -  not  including  the  Gentile 
Galatians. 

kept  in  ward :  a  word  usually  meaning  '  guarded  b}'  soldiers.' 

under  the  law.  Paul  had  just  said,  '  shut  up  .  .  .  under  sin.' 
Here  he  must  be  referring  to  the  same  restraint.  He  does  not 
think  of  the  law  as  a  system  of  obligations  to  be  fulfilled,  but  as 
a  standard  of  judgement  for  transgressors.  Thus  subjection  to  sin 
and  being  held  in  keeping  by  the  law  are  two  aspects  of  the  same 
condition  ;  it  is  because  of  sin  that  law  has  its  power  of  holding  in 
ward.  It  is  only  the  law-breaker  who  loses  his  liberty  and  can 
be  retained  in  a  lock-up  by  the  police  as  guardians  of  law. 

unto:  or  'for,'  indicating  the  object  of  this  guarding  and 
imprisonment. 

the  faith.     See  note  on  '  faith '  earlier  in  this  verse. 

afterwards  .  .  .  revealed:  in  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 

24.  tutor :  an  unfortunate  word  of  the  Revisers,  not  much 
better  than  the  '  schoolmaster '  of  the  A.  V.  The  Greek  word 
(paidagogos)  stands  for  a  slave  who  was  entrusted  with  the  charge 
of  children.  In  the  Roman  world  he  was  also  their  teacher  ;  but 
this  was  not  the  case  among  the  Greeks,  and  Paul  is  writing  to 
a  people  living  in  a  state  of  Greek  civilization,  as  several  of  his 
references  to  manners  and  customs  shew.  He  does  not  mean 
that  the  law  was  the  teacher  training:  for  Christ,  and  that  the  ideas 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  3.  25-27  303 

unto  Christ,  that  we  might  be  justified  by  faith.  But  now  25 
that  faith  is  come,  we  are  no  longer  under  a  tutor.  For  26 
ye  are  all  sons  of  God,  through  faith,  in  Christ  Jesus.    For  27 

of  Judaism  were  preliminary  and  preparatory  to  the  fuller  Christian 
truth.  He  simply  means  that  the  law  was  like  a  servant  whose 
business  it  was  to  conduct  the  children  to  school.  Christ  is  the 
one  teacher. 

to  bring  us  unto  Christ :  (1)  not  by  the  partial  development  of 
a  religious  life  under  Judaism,  which  Paul  never  teaches  ;  nor  (2) 
as  typical  and  symbolical  of  Christianity,  leading  to  Christianity 
by  foreshadowing  it,  an  idea  never  found  in  Paul,  though  it  is 
met  with  in  Hebrews  and  pushed  to  an  extreme  in  the  so-called 
Epistle  of  Barnabas  ;  but  (3)  by  making  people  perceive  their 
need  of  Christ  through  the  sense  of  guilt  and  the  consciousness 
of  the  danger  of  judgement  which  the  law  awakens,  so  that  there 
is  felt  to  be  an  imperative  necessity  of  seeking  what  Paul  calls 
justification,  i.  e.  deliverance  from  this  state  of  guilt,  where  alone  it 
can  be  found,  in  Christ.  His  argument  has  distinctly  led  up  to 
this  point. 

justified  by  faith.     See  notes  on  ii.  16. 

25.  we :  still  only  Paul  and  the  Jews,  as  far  as  they  have  become 
Christians. 

26.  ye  .  .  .  all :  the  Galatians,  Gentile  Christians. 

sons  of  God.  (1)  According  to  Lightfoot,  and  apparently 
Prof.  Ramsa3'  also,  this  sonship  is  contrasted  with  the  condition 
of  childhood  under  a  servant-custodian,  as  involving  the  liberty 
of  older  years.  (2)  Lipsius  denies  the  contrast,  and  there  is  some 
reason  for  his  view.  Paul  now  deliberately  drops  the  first  person 
and  uses  the  second  person.  That  breaks  the  line  of  argument. 
The  Gentiles  never  were  as  children  under  the  law.  Besides,  the 
boy  child  is  also  a  son.  The  notion  of  sonship  does  not  in  itself 
imply  adult  age.  Still  Paul  evidently  means  that,  since  the 
Galatians  are  brought  into  sonship  only  as  Christians,  they  do 
not  have  to  undergo  the  irksome  process  to  which  Jewish 
Christians  had  been  subject,  since  that  was  previous  to  their 
conversion  to  Christianity.  Then  the  following  paragraph  dis- 
tinctly contrasts  the  privilege  of  sonship  with  the  restraints  of 
childhood,  and  this  throws  us  back  on  the  first  view. 

in  Christ  Jesus.  The  Revisers  are  plainly  right  with  their 
punctuation,  which  separates  this  clause  from  that  which  im- 
mediately precedes  and  connects  it  with  the  first  clause  of  the 
sentence.  He  does  not  mean  '  faith  in  Christ  Jesus,'  but  'sons  of 
God  ...  in  Christ  Jesus,'  this  sonship  being  realized  by  means 
of  faith.  He  has  written  of  the  Jews  being  led  to  Christ  (verse 
24),  and  further  down  he  describes  Christians  as  being  <  in  Christ' 


3o4  TO  THE  GALATIANS  3.  28, 29 

as  many  of  you  as  were  baptized  into  Christ  did  put  on 

28  Christ.     There  can  be  neither  Jew  nor  Greek,  there  can 
be  neither  bond  nor  free,  there  can  be  no  male  and 

29  female :  for  ye  all  are  one  man  in  Christ  Jesus.    And  if  ye 

(verse  28).  The  sonship  is  a  state  of  intimate  union  with  Christ. 
Paul  is  not  here  thinking  of  the  universal  Fatherhood  of  God  and 
consequent  Divine  childhood  of  man,  but  of  the  sonship  which  he 
elsewhere  compares  to  adoption  when  by  their  union  with  Christ 
the  Gentile  heathen  enter  God's  family  (cf.  Rom.  viii.  23). 

2*7.  baptized  into  :  rather  '  to,'  or  '  for,'  a  common  usage  of  the 
Greek  preposition  (eis)  signifying  an  end  or  purpose.  Thus  Paul 
uses  the  same  preposition  where  he  says  that  the  Israelites  were 
1  baptized  unto  Moses '  (1  Cor.  x.  2)  ;  it  is  employed  with  reference 
to  the  baptism  of  John  the  Baptist,  where  we  read  of  a  i  baptism 
of  repentance  unto  remission  of  sins'  (Mark  i.  4;  Luke  iii.  3). 
It  occurs  in  the  baptismal  formula  where  the  A.  V.  reads  '  baptizing 
them  in  the  name  of  the  Father,'  &c.  (Matt,  xxviii.  19).  The  R.  V. 
has  '  into '  in  this  passage  ;  but  the  analogy  of  the  other  passages 
cited  would  rather  suggest  *  unto '  or  '  for,'  in  all  cases  the  pre- 
position indicating  the  object  of  the  baptism. 

into  Christ.  The  phrase  'baptized  to  Christ'  indicates  the 
primitive  form  of  baptism  as  simply  '  to  Christ '  (Rom.  vi.  3),  or, 
1  to  the  name  of  Jesus'  (cf.  Acts  xix.  5  ;  1  Cor.  i.  13). 

put  on :  a  common  O.  T.  idiom  (cf.  Job  viii.  22,  xxix.  14, 
xxxix.  19;  Ps.  xxxv.  26)  found  also  elsewhere  in  the  N.T. 
(1  Pet.  v.  5).  Cf.  Rom.  xiii.  14,  'Put  ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.'  As  the  garment  covers  the  person  and  is  closely  wrapped 
about  him,  so  Christ  is  thought  of  as  closely  united  to  his  people 
and  giving  them  their  characteristic  appearance. 

28.  Jew  .  .  .  Greek :  the  racial  distinction,  named  first,  because 
it  had  given  rise  to  the  trouble  in  the  Galatian  churches.  '  Greek ' 
is  the  title  of  people  of  the  Greek  language  and  civilization,  not 
simply  Hellenes  by  birth.  This  title  would  suit  the  people  of 
South  Galatia,  as  it  would  not  suit  the  North  Galatians,  the  Gauls, 
who  were  Romanized,  but  who  had  not  adopted  Greek  customs 
(see  Introduction,  p.  66  ff.). 

bond  .  .  .  free:  the  great  social  distinction  in  the  ancient 
world.  Christianity  did  not  formally  denounce  slavery.  More 
misery  than  good  would  have  come  of  that  premature  action.  But 
by  making  master  and  slave  equally  brethren  in  the  church  it 
tended  to  remove  the  distinction  between  them,  and  so  in  the  end 
to  destroy  the  system  on  which  that  distinction  rested. 

male  and  female.  Christianity,  more  than  any  other  religion, 
gives  equal  rights  to  men  and  women. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   L   i  305 

are  Christ's,  then  are  ye  Abraham's  seed,  heirs  according 
to  promise. 

But  I  say  that  so  long  as  the  heir  is  a   child,   he  4 

all  are  one:  not  of  one  kind  or  nature  but  a  unity.  Being 
all  as  one  man  in  Christ  by  reason  of  the  close  union  with  him  in 
which  they  all  participate,  Christians  cannot  maintain  the  old  lines 
of  separation.  This  is  a  favourite  doctrine  in  Paul's  teaching, 
and  the  establishment  of  the  fact  to  which  it  refers  was  one  of 
the  principal  ends  of  his  labours.  A  great  part  of  his  work,  as 
in  collecting  the  contributions  of  the  Gentile  churches  for  the 
assistance  of  the  Jewish  church  at  Jerusalem,  was  directed 
towards  bringing  about  the  union  of  these  two  branches  of 
Christendom. 

29.  Christ's  :  of  Christ,  by  being  in  Christ. 

then  .  .  .  Abraham's  seed:  because  Christ  is  Abraham's 
seed. 

heirs :  because  Abraham's  family.  Therefore  Abraham's 
promises  will  be  realized  by  all  Christians  irrespective  of  any 
difference  of  race,  social  distinction,  sex.  Then  there  is  no 
room  for  the  Jewish  privileges  after  which  the  Galatians  were  so 
foolishly  hankering.  As  Christians  they  already  possess  the  best 
privileges  of  Israel. 

iv.  1-7.  Sonship.  So  long  as  he  is  a  child  the  heir  is  kept 
under  the  authority  of  certain  officials  till  the  time  determined  in 
his  father's  will.  Similarly  while  Paul  and  the  Jewish  Christians 
were  in  religious  childhood,  they  were  in  subjection  to  the 
elements  of  the  world.  But  on  the  completion  of  this  time  of 
tutelage  God  sent  His  Son  in  a  human  life  subject  to  the  law  in 
order  to  redeem  those  under  law  and  grant  them  sonship.  The 
Galatians,  too,  being  sons,  have  received  the  Spirit  of  God  whereby 
they  can  acknowledge  Him  as  their  Father.  This  privilege 
of  sonship  involves  freedom  from  servitude  and  the  rights  of 
heirs. 

1.  Bnt  Z  say.  Paul  reverts  to  the  idea  of  verse  23  in  order  to 
confirm  it  from  another  point  of  view,  and  thus  explain  more  fully 
both  why  the  law  was  given  and  how  it  came  to  be  superseded. 

the  heir.  The  whole  argument  here  proceeds  on  the  sup- 
position of  a  case  in  which  property  is  left  to  a  child  under  a  will 
by  the  death  of  his  father.  Since  Paul  regards  God  as  the  Father, 
this  part  of  the  analogy  cannot  be  worked  out  in  detail.  Still  it 
serves  to  set  the  case  of  the  heir  before  us  as,  in  some  respects, 
representative  of  the  Jews  in  the  pre-Christian  age. 

a  child:  an  infant  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  a  minor.  Accord- 
ing to  Roman  law  the  title  infaus  ceased,  at  the  age  of  seven, 

W  x 


3o6  TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.  2-4 

differeth  nothing  from  a  bondservant,  though  he  is  lord 

2  of  all ;    but  is  under  guardians  and  stewards  until  the 

3  term  appointed  of  the  father.      So  we  also,  when  we 
were  children,  were  held  in  bondage  under  the  rudiments 

4  of  the  world :    but  when  the  fulness  of  the  time  came, 

after  which  the  child  was  competent  to  perform  certain  legal 
acts  ;  he  was  under  a  guardian  till  he  was  fourteen  ;  and  he  did 
nut  have  full  power  over  his  property  till  he  was  twenty-five. 
But  Prof.  Ramsay  has  shewn  that  Paul  is  following  the  Greek 
usage,  known  in  Syria  and  therefore  probably  also  in  Southern 
Galatia. 

differeth  nothing,  &c.  :  in  being  under  authority  and  not 
allowed  to  dispose  of  property. 

lord  of  all :  i.  e.  of  all  the  estate  left  by  his  father,  including 
the  slaves,  like  whom,  for  the  time  being,  he  has  to  be  in  subjection, 
and  even  the  very  officials  whom  he  has  to  obey. 

2.  guardians :  the  recognized  Greek  legal  word  for  the 
guardians  of  minors,  having  personal  charge  of  them,  as  seen  in 
the  inscriptions. 

stewards :  having  charge  of  the  property.  Cf.  the  parable 
of  'The  Unjust  Steward'  (Luke  xvi.  i  ff.). 

the  term  appointed  of  the  father.  Roman  law  did  not 
permit  the  testator  to  fix  the  age  at  which  a  son  came  into  his 
estate  ;  but  this  was  allowed  by  the  Syrian  Greek  law,  to  the 
example  of  which  therefore  Paul  is  now  appealing.  It  would  be 
the  law  of  his  own  native  province  Cilicia,  and  that  also  of  the 
churches  to  which  he  was  writing. 

3.  we:  Paul  and  fellow  Jews  cf.  verse  5,  '  that  he  might  redeem 
them  which  were  under  the  law'),  distinguished  from  the  Gala- 
tians  who  are  addressed  in  verse  6  as  "  ye.' 

when  we  were  children :  reverting  to  the  idea  of  verse  24 
where  the  law  is  the  servant  in  charge  of  children.  Paul  regards 
the  pre-Christian  condition  of  the  Jews  as  a  state  of  childhood. 
This  has  an  important  bearing  on  his  whole  argument,  shewing 
why  he  regarded  the  Galatians  as  foolish  in  adopting  Judaism. 
They  were  voluntarily  putting  themselves  in  that  state  of  re- 
strained infancy  from  which  Christianity  was  giving  the  Jews 
deliverance. 

bondage.  Law  is  essentially  bondage  compared  with  the 
freedom  of  the  Christian  state. 

the  rudiments  of  the  world.  The  Revisers  follow  Light- 
foot  in  giving  the  word  '  rudiments '  here,  Lightfoot  understanding 
the  reference  to  be  to  elementary  teaching.  The  Greek  word  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  alphabet.     With  this  sense  the  passage 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.  4  3°7 

God  sent  forth  his  Son,  born  of  a  woman,  born  under  the 


would  describe  the  state  of  the  Jews  as  possessing  but  the  alpha- 
bet of  religious  knowledge  in  pre-Christian  times.  But  there  is 
much  in  favour  of  retaining  the  word  '  elements '  as  in  the  A.  V. 
That  is  a  common  use  of  the  word  (cf.  Wisd.  of  Sol.  vii.  17,  xix.  18; 
2  Pet.  iii.  10,  12,  '  the  elements  shall  be  dissolved/  'the  elements 
shall  melt  with  fervent  heat').  The  addition  of  the  phrase  'of 
the  world '  favours  this  view.  It  is  difficult  to  see  any  sense  in 
the  expression  '  the  rudiments  of  the  world '  understood  as  we 
apply  the  word  'rudiments'  to  a  grammar  or  a  science.  But 
then  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  Jews  were  especially  subject 
to  the  elements  of  nature.  Most  of  the  Fathers  understood  the 
expression  to  mean  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  In  Jewish  specula- 
tion these  were  supposed  to  represent  angel-powers.  In  the 
apocryphal  Testament  of  Solomon,  the  spirits  say,  'We  are  the  so- 
called  elements,  the  world  rulers  of  this  world.'  In  verse  9 '  the  weak 
and  beggarly  rudiments'  (A.  V.  '  elements')  seem  to  be  identified 
with  '  them  which  by  nature  are  no  gods '  (verse  8),  and  then  the 
idea  of  the  Galatians  turning  back  to  these  old  influences  implies 
that  even  they,  though  heathen,  had  been  under  them  previous 
to  their  conversion.  This  would  not  apply  to  the  Jewish  law  ; 
and  yet  we  must  give  the  word  the  same  meaning  in  both  places. 
If  then  we  understand  it  here  to  refer  to  the  heavenly  bodies,  the 
Jewish  observance  of  sabbaths,  new  moons  and  other  seasons 
(verse  10)  would  be  thought  of  as  like  a  heathenish  return  to 
subjection  to  the  heavenly  bodies  that  were  supposed  to  rule  these 
seasons  (so  Lipsius,  and  Prof.  Massie,  article  'Elements'  in 
Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible). 

4.  the  fulness  of  the  time :  the  completion  of  the  time,  when 
the  preliminary  period  had  come  to  an  end.  This  corresponds 
to  'the  term  appointed'  (verse  2)  by  the  father  in  his  will 
determining  when  the  heir  shall  enter  into  his  estate  (cf.  Eph.  i. 
10). 

God  sent  forth  his  Son.  The  idea  is  Christ  coming  into  this 
world  from  God  and  as  a  result  of  God's  action. 

horn  of  a  woman:  indicating  an  actual  human  birth,  with 
consequent  human  nature  and  its  physical  frailty,  not  a  mere 
Christophany,  or  appearance  of  Christ  on  earth.  This  phrase 
has  no  direct  bearing  on  the  subject  of  the  virgin  birth  of  Jesus, 
since  every  man  is  '  born  of  a  woman.'  On  the  other  hand,  it 
contains  nothing  to  exclude  the  virgin  birth,  being  simply  silent 
on  the  question  of  paternity.  Evidently  no  such  question  was  in 
the  Apostle's  mind,  his  purpose  being  simply  to  point  to  our  Lord's 
actual  humanity  in  contrast  with  his  Divine  origin. 

horn  under  the  law  :  a  Jew  by  birth  ;  not  like  the  Galalians 

X    2 


3o8  TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.  5-7 

5  law,  that  he  might  redeem  them  which  were  under  the 

6  law,  that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons.  And 
because  ye  are  sons,  God  sent  forth  the  Spirit  of  his  Son 

7  into  our  hearts,  crying,  Abba,  Father.  So  that  thou  art 
no  longer  a  bondservant,  but  a  son ;  and  if  a  son,  then 
an  heir  through  God. 

who,  though  born  apart  from  the  law.  were  voluntarily  subjecting 
themselves  to  it. 

5.  redeem.  See  note  on  iii.  13.  Evidently  Paul  here  connects 
redemption  with  the  incarnation  and  subjection  of  Christ  to  the 
law.  He  was  sent  into  these  humiliating  conditions  for  the  purpose 
of  effecting  the  redemption. 

them  which  were  under  the  law:  Jews,  to  whom  alone 
this  verse  applies. 

we :  strictly  Paul  and  other  Jews,  as  the  context  proves ; 
and  yet  the  next  verse  shews  how  ready  Paul  will  be  to  extend 
the  content  of  the  pronoun  to  include  all  Christians — Gentile  as 
well  as  Jew. 

adoption:  a  familiar  Greek  and  Roman  custom.  The  striking 
thing  is  that  the  Apostle  even  describes  the  Divine  sonship  of 
Jewish  Christians  as  obtained  by  adoption,  not  by  nature. 

6.  ye  are  sons.  Paul  suddenly  passes  from  the  sonship  he 
shares  with  Jewish  Christians  to  that  of  the  Galatians,  as  though 
having  asserted  the  former  he  might  take  the  latter  for  granted. 
He  is  not  engaged  in  proving  the  sonship  in  either  case.  He 
appeals  to  it  as  an  acknowledged  fact.  But  he  assumes  that  it 
has  the  same  origin  both  with  Jews  and  with  Gentiles. 

the  Spirit  of  his  Son.  Paul  does  not  tie  himself  down  to 
exact  Trinitarian  distinctions.  Here  he  is  referring  to  the  Divine 
Spirit,  elsewhere  known  as  the  '  Holy  Spirit,'  now  regarded  as 
dwelling  in  Christ. 

Abba:  Aramaism  for  Father;  hence  our  word  'Abbot.'  It 
would  seem  that  the  Aramaic  and  Greek  words  were  repeated 
together  by  the  early  Christians  as  a  sort  of  familiar  formula  in 
prayer,  marking  the  Divine  Fatherhood  common  to  both  sections 
of  the  church.  Paul  here  refers  to  it  as  prompted  by  the  Spirit  of 
Christ ;  elsewhere  he  argues  that  this  inspired  acknowledgement 
of  God  as  our  Father  is  a  testimony  to  the  sonship  of  Christians 
(Rom.  viii.  15,  16). 

7.  thou.  The  singular  makes  the  appeal  personal  to  each  reader. 
no  longer  a  bondservant.     Both  branches  of  the  church  had 

been  in  subjection — the  Jews  as  children  under  guardians  and 
stewards  because  subject  to  their  law  (verses  1,  0),  the  Gentiles 
as  slaves  to  idolatry. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.  s,  9  309 

Howbeit  at  that  time,  not  knowing  God,  ye  were  in  8 
bondage  to  them  which  by  nature  are  no  gods  :  but  now  9 
that  ye  have  come  to  know  God,  or  rather  to  be  known 
of  God,  how  turn  ye  back  again  to  the  weak  and  beggarly 

then  an  heir  :  not  merely  of  the  promises  to  Abraham  which 
extended  to  his  heirs,  as  might  be  said  of  Christians  when  con- 
sidered to  be  *  sons  of  Abraham '  (iii.  7),  but  an  heir  of  God's  inheri- 
tance as  His  son. 

through  God :  by  God's  action  of  adoption,  not  by  nature 
(verse  5). 

br.  8-1 1.  The  return  to  the  old  bondage.  The  Galatians  had 
been  in  bondage  to  false  gods  previous  to  their  knowledge  of  the 
true  God ;  but  how  after  that  could  they  return  to  the  miserable 
degradation  ?  In  their  observance  of  sacred  seasons  they  are 
really  doing  so.  Such  conduct  makes  Paul  fear  that  he  has  thrown 
away  his  labour  on  them. 

8.  at  that  time :  previous  to  conversion. 

in  bondage.  Paul  regards  the  heathen  condition  as  a  bondage 
to  superstition  just  as  he  regards  the  Jewish  condition  as  a 
bondage  to  law  when  contrasted  with  the  liberty  of  Divine  sonship. 

them  ...  by  nature  ...  no  gods :  '  the  weak  and  beggarly 
elements/  i.  e.  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  The  commonest  worship 
throughout  the  world  was  sun-worship.  Renan  points  out  that 
in  the  second  century  this  pagan  cult,  under  the  form  of  adoration 
of  the  Persian  Mithra,  was  the  most  serious  rival  to  Christianity. 

toy  nature  ...  no  gods :  only  gods  by  convention  and  super- 
stition. 

9.  come  to  know  God.  Paul's  preaching  to  the  heathen,  as 
that  of  every  wise  missionarj'  must  necessarily  be,  was  based  on 
an  explanation  of  the  pure  Christian  theism  as  opposed  to  pagan 
polytheism  (cf.  Acts  xvii.  23-29). 

or  rather  to  toe  known  of  God :  in  the  sense  of  being  acknow- 
ledged by  God,  i.  e.  as  sons.  Cf.  1  Cor.  viii.  3,  '  If  any  man 
loveth  God,  the  same  is  known  of  him.' 

turn  ye  back  again.  Paul  regards  the  adoption  of  Judaism 
as  virtually  a  reversion  to  heathenism,  a  startling  opinion  for 
Judaizing  Christians  who  would  regard  themselves  as  further 
removed  from  paganism  than  the  freer  living  Gentile  Christians. 
Throughout  the  argument  he  insists  on  the  essential  resemblance 
between  Judaism  and  paganism  in  contrast  to  Christianity. 

weak.  The  pagan  divinities  were  ineffective,  impotent  to 
save  as  the  Christian  God  saves  in  His  redemption.  But  it  was 
bold  to  say  this  in  the  hearing  of  sun-worshippers,  in  effect  to  call 
the  blazing  sun  of  Asia  'weak' ! 


310  TO  THE  GALATIANS  1  10-13 

rudiments,  whereunto  ye  desire  to  be  in  bondage  over 
10  again?  Ye  observe  days,  and  months,  and  seasons,  and 
]  r  years.     I  am  afraid  of  you,  lest  by  any  means  I  have 

bestowed  labour  upon  you  in  vain. 

12  I  beseech  you,  brethren,  be  as  I  <?///,  for  I  am  as  ye 

13  are.     Ye  did  me  no  wrong :  but  ye  know  that  because 

beggarly:  unable  to  bestow  any  gifts  of  value,  such  as  the 
Christian  God  gives  in  His  grace. 

rudiments  :  '  elements '  as  in  the  A.  V.     See  note  on  verse  3. 
10.  days:  sabbaths  and  perhaps  fast  da3's ;  cf.  Col.  ii.  16. 

months:  new  moon  festivals  ;  cf.  Isa.  i.  14,  lxvi.  23. 

seasons :  various  other  periodical  festivals. 

years:  annual  Jewish  feasts— Passover,  Pentecost,  &c. 
Lightfoot  suggests  the  Sabbatical  and  Jubilee  years  ;  but  these 
were  not  really  observed.  The  pagan  education  of  the  Galatians 
would  predispose  them  to  adopt  especially  this  aspect  of  Judaism, 
since  it  fell  in  with  their  traditional  reverence  for  the  heavenly 
bodies. 

iv.  12-20  The  earlier  sympathy  between  Paul  and  the  Galatians. 
The  Apostle  entreats  the  Galatians  to  follow  his  example, 
reminding  them  how  he  was  first  led  to  preach  to  them  through 
his  phrysical  infirmity;  and  yet  the}'  did  not  despise  him  on  that 
account,  but  gave  him  a  most  enthusiastic  welcome.  No  sacrifice 
would  have  been  too  great  for  them  to  have  made  for  him.  But 
now  has  he  become  their  enemy  merely  because  he  tells  them 
the  truth?  Their  new  friends  have  no  good  end  in  view,  though 
in  itself  it  is  well  that  people  should  shew  an  interest  in  them. 
Paul  feels  like  a  mother  in  birth-pains  for  them  again.  He  longs 
to  be  present  with  them  and  to  be  able  to  change  his  tone  from 
the  style  of  grieved  expostulation. 

12.  I  beseech:  a  strong  word  in  the  Greek.  '  I  beg  and  pray.' 

be  as  I  am  :  i.  e.  free  from  the  bondage  of  Jewish  ordinances. 
This  shews  that  not  only  did  Paul  not  require  his  Gentile  converts 
to  adopt  the  law ;  though  a  Jew  b}r  birth  he  himself  had 
abandoned  it.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  other 
apostles  had  thus  wholly  renounced  Judaism,  though  Peter  had 
taken  a  timid  step  in  that  direction  (ii.  12). 

X  am  as  ye  are:  like  the  Gentiles  who  are  free  from  the 
Jewish  law.  Since  Paul  has  taken  the  bold  step  of  breaking  with 
the  law  of  his  fathers  in  order  to  put  himself  on  a  level  with  his 
converts,  he  begs  them  to  come  back  to  that  position  of  freedom 
from  law  in  deference  to  his  example. 

Ye  did  me  no  wrong.  The  punctuation  of  the  A.  V.  connects 
this  sentence  with  what  precedes,  and  seems  to  imply  that  the 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.  14  311 

of  an  infirmity  of  the  flesh  I  preached  the  gospel  unto 
you  the  first  time:   and  that  which  was  a  temptation  14 

Apostle  is  repudiating  any  feeling  of  personal  offence.  In  this 
their  perversion  the  Galatians  have  not  wronged  Paul  personally. 
But  the  punctuation  of  the  R.V.  better  suits  the  context,  in 
associating  the  sentence  with  what  follows,  especially  as  the 
pronoun  'me'  is  not  in  an  emphatic  place.  In  the  old  time  the 
Galatians  had  behaved  well  to  Paul.  He  will  proceed  to  enlarge 
on  that  subject.  Possibly,  as  Lightfoot  suggests,  Paul  is  alluding 
to  some  unrecorded  incident  of  his  intercourse  with  the  Galatians 
in  which  they  may  have  thought  to  have  done  him  an  injustice. 

13.  because  of  an  infirmity,  &c.  :  not  'through  infirmity' 
as  in  the  A.  V.  Paul  distinctly  asserts  that  it  was  because  of 
some  bodily  ailment  that  he  came  to  preach  the  gospel  at  all 
to  the  Galatians,  and  this  they  themselves  know.  Prof.  Ramsa}* 
makes  an  ingenious  suggestion  to  explain  this  position,  viz.  that 
Paul's  '  infirmity  of  the  flesh,'  which  he  takes  to  be  the  same 
as  the  'thorn' (or  'stake')  'in  the  flesh'  (2  Cor.  xii.  ■jtY,  was 
an  attack  of  malarial  fever  brought  on  while  he  was  in  the 
low-lying  district  of  Perga  in  Pampl^lia  (Acts  xiii.  13).  This 
induced  him  to  seek  restoration  of  health  by  crossing  the 
bracing  range  of  Taurus  mountains.  Thus  the  Apostle  was 
brought  into  the  region  of  the  South  Galatian  cities,  and  came 
to  carry  on  evangelistic  work  there  as  recorded  in  Acts  xiii,  xiv. 
The  change  of  plan  would  account  for  Mark's  desertion  of  the 
party  and  return  to  Jerusalem  (ibid.).  The  attacks  of  this  fever  are 
intermittent,  and  when  they  occur  they  produce  extreme  prostration 
with  severe  headache.  Now  it  was  a  tradition  in  Asia  Minor 
as  early  as  the  second  century  (see  Tertullian,  De  Pudic.  xiii)  that 
Paul's  *  thorn  in  the  flesh'  was  severe  headache,  a  pain  which 
in  its  acuteness  of  agony  fever  patients  have  compared  to 
'a  red-hot  bar  thrust  through  the  forehead,'  'the  grinding,  boring 
pain  in  one  temple,  like  the  dentist's  drill — the  phantom  wedge 
driven   in  between  the  jaw,'  so  that  the  patient  seems  to  have 

'  reached  the  extreme  point  of  human  endurance.' 

the  first  time:  or  'the  former'  (R.V.  marg.).  This  would 
mean  that  Paul  had  been  twice  to  the  Galatian  district :  (r) 
Acts  xiii,  xiv  and  (a)xvi.  1-6.  Thus  he  would  be  now  referring  to 
the  former  of  these  two  visits,  which  was  the  occasion  when  he 
founded  the  churches  at  Antioch,  Iconium,  Derbe,  and  Lystra. 
This  would  shew  that  the  Epistle  was  not  written  till  after  the 
second  visit,  when  apparently  he  had  not  been  so  well  received. 
But  the  word  ma}T  mean  '  formerly,'  irrespective  of  the  number 
of  visits,  e.g.  Eph.  iv.  22,  'your  former  manner  of  life.' 

14.  a  temptation  to  you.    All  the  best  MSS.  give  this  reading 


3i2  TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.  15-17 

to  you  in  my  flesh  ye  despised  not,  nor  rejected;  but 
ye  received  me  as  an  angel  of  God,  even  as  Christ  Jesus. 

15  Where  then  is  that  gratulation  of  yourselves?  for  I  bear 
you  witness,  that,  if  possible,  ye  would  have  plucked 

16  out  your  eyes  and  given  them  to  me.     So  then  am  I 

17  become  your  enemy,  because  I  tell  you  the  truth  ?  They 

in  preference  to  'my  temptation*  as  in  the  A.  V.  Paul  means 
that  the  wretched  appearance  he  presented  in  his  illness  was 
a  temptation  to  the  Galatians  to  treat  him  with  contempt. 

despised:  the  word  used  by  our  Lord  in  predicting  his 
rejection,  where  it  is  translated  'set  at  nought'  (Mark  ix.  12). 

rejected:  lit.  'spat  out.'  This  strong  language  favours  the 
idea  that  Paul's  physical  infirmity  was  such  as  to  make  him 
present  a  humiliating  spectacle.  Accordingly  some  have  suggested 
that  it  was  'epilepsy.' 

as  an  angel  of  God.  Some  of  the  Galatians,  at  Lystra, 
had  taken  Paul  and  Barnabas  for  divinities  (see  Acts  xiv.  12), 
regarding  the  Apostle  as  Hermes,  the  Greek  messenger-god. 
Seeing  that  the  word  'angel'  means  'messenger'  it  seems  likely 
that  Paul  is  here  referring  to  that  incident.  We  had  an  earlier 
reference  to  this  idea  of  the  angel  (see  note  on  i.  8\ 

15.  gratulation.  Lightfoot  has 'felicitation.'  Paul  means  the 
joy  which  the  Galatians  experienced  in  receiving  him  and  his 
message. 

if  possible :  i.  e.  to  give  their  eyes  to  Paul,  not  merely  to 
pluck  them  out,  which  of  course  was  possible. 

would  have  plucked  out  your  eyes.  This  expression  lias 
led  some  to  conjecture  that  the  thorn  in  the  flesh  was  some 
affection  of  the  eyes.  The  fact  that  Paul  was  in  the  habit  of 
dictating  his  Epistles  to  an  amanuensis,  and  his  reference  to 
the  'large  letters'  in  which  he  wrote  with  his  own  hand  the 
sentences  he  thus  appended  (vi.  11  ,  have  been  thought  to  bear 
out  this  suggestion.  But  the  illustration  was  very  natural,  quite 
apart  from  any  such  specific  use  of  it.  The  'apple  of  one's  eye' 
was  proverbial  for  something  very  precious  (Ps.  xvii.  8). 

16.  So  then:  in  view  of  the  changed  attitude  of  the  Galatians 
to  Paul. 

your  enemy.  This  word  could  be  used  in  the  passive  sense 
as  'one  whom  you  hate1;  but  then  it  would  require  the  dative 
of  the  pronoun,  whereas  it  has  the  genitive.  Therefore  it  must 
mean  'your  antagonist'  or  'one  who  injures  you,'  probably  with 
reference  to  the  insinuations  of  the  Judaizers  that  Paul  was 
hurting  his  converts  by  withholding  from  them  the  privileges 
of  the  law, 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.   iS  313 

zealously  seek  you  in  no  good  way ;  nay,  they  desire  to 
shut  you  out,  that  ye  may  seek  them.     But  it  is  good  to  iJ 
be  zealously  sought  in  a  good  matter  at  all  times,  and 

tell:  rather,  'in  telling.'  The  form  is  participial.  Paul  is 
not  referring  to  what  he  is  now  saying,  which  of  course  could 
not  be  the  ground  of  offence  and  occasion  of  expostulation  before 
the  Galatians  had  read  it ;  he  is  going  back  to  his  teaching  during 
his  visits  to  the  Galatians. 

the  truth :  i.  e.  that  they  have  the  blessings  of  Christianity 
solely  on  condition  of  faith  in  Christ  and  apart  from  the  law 
(cf.  ii.  5,  14). 

1*7.  They:  the  Judaizing  intruders. 

zealously  seek.  The  sense  of  '  zeal '  is  not  appropriate  here. 
'To  desire  one  earnestly,'  one  of  the  meanings  given  in  the 
Grimm-Thayer  Dictionary,  is  more  suitable  (cf.  2  Cor.  xi.  2, 
where  the  rendering  is  'jealous').  In  the  O.  T.  the  Septuagint 
translators  used  the  word  for  'envy'  (cf.  Ps.  xxxvi.  [xxxvii.]  1; 
Prov.  xxiii.  17,  xxiv.  i\  Here  it  seems  to  be  used  for  courting 
one's  goodwill  and  favour. 

to  shut  you  out.  (1)  Lightfoot  understands  this  to  refer 
to  the  tendency  of  the  false  teaching  which,  by  insisting  on 
ceremonial,  would  in  fact  exclude  the  Galatians  from  Christ. 
But  the  idea  of  'desiring'  is  not  suitable  to  such  a  meaning. 
Therefore  (2)  it  seems  better  to  take  the  phrase  with  a  more 
direct  application.  The  Judaizers  would  desire  to  shut  the 
Gentiles  out  of  the  church,  not  indeed  finals  but  until  they 
consented  to  circumcision,  and  in  order  to  drive  them  to  undergo 
the  rite. 

seek  them. :  not  simply  accept  their  teaching.  Paul  implies 
that  personal  ambition  was  at  the  bottom  of  this  strenuous 
proselytizing. 

18.  to  be  zealously  sought.  The  same  meaning  for  this  word 
must  be  preserved  throughout,  and  also  the  same  application  of  it. 
Therefore  the  Apostle  cannot  mean  that  it  is  well  for  him  to  be 
courted  favourably  by  the  Galatians  during  his  absence  as  well  as 
when  present  with  them.  He  must  refer  to  the  treatment  they 
receive.  In  itself  it  is  well  that  the  Galatians  should  have  some 
who  desire  to  win  them  if  onty  it  be  for  a  good  cause.  This 
desire  Paul  displayed  while  he  was  with  them.  It  would  be  good 
for  them  to  experience  the  same  thing  during  his  absence  if 
anybody  would  shew  the  same  solicitude.  The  Apostle  does  not 
blame  the  Judaizers  for  being  interested  in  the  Galatians,  but  for 
the  kind  of  influence  they  exert.  He  does  not  wish  to  deprive  the 
Galatians  of  solicitous  friends,  if  only  those  friends  will  shew  their 
solicitude  for  a  good  object.     The  next  verse  hints  that  he  is  really 


3i4  TO  THE  GALATIANS   4.  r9-2r 

19  not  only  when  I  am  present  with  you.  My  little  children, 
of  whom  I  am  again  in  travail  until  Christ  be  formed 

20  in  you,  yea,  I  could  wish  to  be  present  with  you  now, 
and  to  change  my  voice;  for  I  am  perplexed  about 
you. 

11      Tell  me,  ye  that  desire  to  be  under  the  law,  do  ye 

thinking  of  himself  as  the  friend  who  desires  to  win  the  Galatians 
during  his  absence  as  well  as  when  present  among  them. 

19.  My  little  children :  a  mode  of  address  found  nowhere  else 
in  Paul's  writings,  though  common  in  John  (cf.  i  John  ii.  i,  12,  18), 
not  only  very  affectionate  in  tone,  but  also,  as  the  context  shews, 
implying  some  rebuke  for  the  childishness  of  the  Galatians  and 
their  backwardness  in  religious  knowledge  and  life.  Unlike  our 
Lord  in  the  gospels  and  John,  Paul  thinks  of  childhood  especialry 
in  relation  to  its  immaturity  (cf.  1  Cor.  xiii.  11).  Yet  the  word 
'  My'  is  personally  affectionate.  The  Apostle  regards  himself  as 
a  mother  of  his  childish  converts. 

again.  Their  conversion  was  like  a  birth  brought  about 
through  the  travail  of  the  Apostle.  He  is  now  going  through  the 
process  again  in  endeavouring  to  bring  them  to  the  true  Christian 
life  after  their  perversion  by  the  Judaizers. 

until  Christ  be  formed  in  you.  The  word  rendered 
'  formed '  is  very  explicit,  meaning  brought  into  a  certain  form. 
The  idea  seems  to  be  that  of  the  Christ  life  and  character  being 
shaped  in  the  lives  of  the  Galatians.  There  is  some  confusion  of 
metaphor  ;  but  the  Apostle  cannot  be  thinking  of  them  as  the 
mother,  since  he  has  just  applied  the  image  to  himself;  and  the 
image  as  applied  to  the  Galatians  is  not  one  he  would  be  likely  to 
use  (cf.  Eph.  iv.  13). 

20.  to  change  my  voice :  from  the  present  tone  of  painful 
expostulation.  If  he  were  with  them  he  might  see  it  possible  to 
change  his  manner  of  address  in  proportion  as  he  saw  them  yield 
to  his  persuasion.  As  it  is,  he  is  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  think 
of  them. 

iv.  21 — v.  r.  The  allegory  of  Hagar.  Following  the  familiar 
method  of  a  Rabbinical  allegory,  Paul  compares  Abraham's  free 
wife  and  the  handmaid  Hagar  to  the  two  covenants,  the 
second  represented  by  Sinai,  where  the  bondage  of  the  law 
was  given,  and  then  Jerusalem,  and  the  first  by  the  heavenly 
Jerusalem  which  is  the  mother  of  Christians,  who  like  Isaac  are 
children  brought  forth  according  to  promise.  Just  as  Ishmael 
persecuted  Isaac,  so  now  Jews  persecute  Christians.  But  the 
Scripture  commanded  the  handmaid  and  her  son  to  be  cast  out. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.  22-24  315 

not  hear  the  law?     For  it  is  written,  that  Abraham  had  22 
two  sons,  one  by  the  handmaid,  and  one  by  the  free- 
woman.     Howbeit  the  son   by  the  handmaid   is   born  2?, 
alter  the  flesh ;   but  the  son  by  the  freewoman  is  born 
through   promise.     Which   things  contain  an  allegory  :  2  \ 
for  these  women  are  two  covenants ;    one  from  mount 


Since  we  are  not  such,  but  are  the  children  of  the  freewoman,  we 
ought  to  hold  to  our  liberty. 

21.  ye  that  desire,  &c. :  the  Galatians.or  at  least  those  of  them 
who  were  hankering  after  Judaism.  Paul  is  proceeding  to  an 
argiimcntum  ad  homines.  Let  those  who  think  so  much  of  the  law 
listen  to  the  law. 

hear  the  law.     The  title  'the  law'  was  used  for  the  whole 
Pentateuch,  the  narratives  as  well  as  the  precepts. 

22.  one  by  the  handmaid:  Ishmael,  Hagar's  child  (Gen. 
xvi.  15). 

one  by  the  freewoman:  Isaac,  Sarah's  child  (Gen.  xxi.  2). 

23.  While  the  birth  of  Ishmael  was  according  to  the  course  of 
nature,  the  birth  of  Isaac  was  described  as  a  consequence  of  God's 
promise  which  enabled  Sarah  to  bear  a  child  in  her  old  age.  This 
was  the  great  historic  promise,  faith  with  regard  to  which  was 
reckoned  to  Abraham  for  righteousness  (Gen.  xv.  1-6).  Thus 
Isaac  has  two  advantages  over  Ishmael  :  (i)  The  status  of  his 
ir.of.her,  who  is  a  freewoman,  while  Ishmael's  mother  is  a  slave  ; 
(2)  the  circumstances  of  his  birth,  which  included  a  specific  Divine 
promise  and  its  fulfilment,  while  Ishmael's  birth  was  a  mere  natural 
event. 

24.  an  allegory.  The  word  '  allegorize '  (Greek,  aliegorucin) 
means  literally  '  to  say  something  different,'  and  it  is  used  in  Jewish, 
and  especially  in  Alexandrian,  literature  for  giving  a  secondary 
spiritual  or  metaphorical  meaning  to  narratives  which  in  their 
first  intention  record  external  events.  It  is  not  used  in  the  sense 
in  which  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  is  an  allegory,  as  something 
written  solely  with  the  intention  of  teaching  ideas  through  the 
narrative  of  events  that  are  onty  suppositious ;  but  it  is  applied  to 
ancient  history,  without  denying  the  actuality  of  what  is  there 
stated,  but  seeing  within  it  a  deeper,  secondaiy  meaning.  This 
allegorical  treatment  of  their  own  sacred  history  was  common 
among  the  Jews.  Philo  pushed  it  to  an  extreme,  and  under  his 
hands  the  original  sense  of  the  history,  though  not  denied  to  be 
true,  is  lost  sight  of  and  completely  buried  beneath  a  system  of 
philosophizing  metaphors. 

covenants.     See  note  on  iii.  15. 


316  TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.  25 

Sinai,  bearing  children  unto  bondage,  which  is  Hagar. 
25  Now  this  Hagar  is  mount  Sinai  in  Arabia,  and  answereth 


one  from  mount  Sinai :  the  covenant  of  the  law  (see  Exod. 
xxxiv.  10  ff.). 

unto  bondage :  better,  <  for  bondage ' ;  Jews  under  the  law 
being  regarded  as  children  whose  mother  is  the  covenant  of  the 
law.  This  Paul  has  already  described  as  a  condition  of  restraint 
(iii.  23),  equivalent  to  that  of  a  bondservant  (iv.  1).  Mow  he 
calls  it  actual  bondage,  as  he  has  described  the  condition  of  the 
heathen  when  subject  to  their  superstitions  (iv.  8). 

which  is  Hagar.  The  covenant  of  the  law  is  represented  by 
Hagar. 

25.  Wow  this  Hag-ar  is  mount  Sinai  in  Arabia.  Another 
reading  is  '  For  Sinai  is  a  mountain  in  Arabia,'  and  the  MS. 
authorities  are  about  equally  divided  between  the  two  ;  but  most  of 
the  versions  and  citations  in  ancient  writers  support  the  latter, 
which  is  accepted  by  most  textual  critics.  This  sentence  is  very 
apposite  to  the  argument.  Paul  has  made  a  daring  use  of  allegory 
in  comparing  the  law  to  Hagar  the  slave  instead  of  Sarah  the 
wife.  To  strengthen  his  position  he  reminds  his  readers  that 
the  scene  of  the  law-giving  was  situated  in  the  country  of  the 
Arabs,  who  were  considered  to  be  her  descendants.  Israel  went 
to  Sinai,  to  Arabia,  to  the  land  of  Hagar.  to  the  country  of  the 
slave  for  the  much-vaunted  law.  Some  who  retain  the  reading 
in  the  text  consider  that  the  sentence  contains  a  play  upon 
words,  since  diagar'is  the  Arabic  for  a  'rock1;  but  Paul  could  not 
expect  the  Greek-speaking  Galatians  to  recognize  this. 

answereth  to :  lit.  '  is  in  the  same  row  or  column  with.'  The 
Greek  word  is  used  in  militar}'  language  for  a  file  or  rank  of 
soldiers.  Here  it  means  that  mount  Sinai  is  in  the  same  line 
of  comparison  with  Jerusalem  in  the  allegory.  This  pushes  the 
argument  further  home.  Jerusalem  was  the  head  quarters  of 
Judaism  in  Paul's  day.  Thus  Jerusalem  =  Sinai  =  Hagar's 
country  =  bondage.  Lipsius  proposes  a  much  more  elaborate  and 
recondite  comparison.  An  ancient  form  of  puzzle  was  to  take  the 
?.u:n  of  the  numerical  value  of  the  letters  of  a  word  as  a  cryptogram 
for  the  word.  Thus  in  the  Apocalypse  666,  as  '  the  number  of  the 
beast,'  is  understood  to  be  the  sum  of  the  numerical  values  of 
the  Hebrew  letters  for  '  Nero  Caesar.'  The  grammarians  use  the 
Greek  word  (stoichos),  which  appears  in  a  compound  form  in  our 
text,  for  such  a  series  of  letters.  Accordingly  Lipsius  understands 
it  to  mean  here  a  corresponding  series  of  letter-numbers.  Thus 
out  of  the  Hebrew  letters  for  the  present  and  the  future  Jerusalem 
he  gets  the  numbers  999  and  607,  and  arrives  at  similar  totals 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   4.  26-28  317 

to  the  Jerusalem  that  now  is  :  for  she  is  in  bondage  with 
her  children.     But  the  Jerusalem  that  is  above  is  free,  26 
which  is  our  mother.     For  it  is  written,  27 

Rejoice,  thou  barren  that  bearest  not ; 
Break  forth  and  cry,  thou  that  travailest  not : 
For  more  are  the  children  of  the  desolate  than  of 
her  which  hath  the  husband. 
Now  we,  brethren,  as  Isaac  was,  are  children  of  promise.  28 

with  sentences  that  introduce  the  name  'Hagar.'     This  is  mere 
guess-work. 

26.  Jerusalem  that  is  above.  This  expression  was  quite  in 
agreement  with  the  Rabbinical  teaching  in  which  Paul  had  been 
trained.  The  Rabbis  used  to  speak  of  a  heavenly  Jerusalem,  the 
ideal  city  of  the  future,  as  already  existing  in  upper  regions  and 
destined  to  descend  to  earth  in  the  Messianic  era.  We  meet 
with  'the  heavenly  Jerusalem'  (Heb.  xii.  22),  and  in  Rev.  xxi. 
2,  with  '  the  new  Jerusalem,  coming  down  out  of  heaven.' 
With  Paul  it  scarcely  seems  to  correspond  to  the  church,  or 
Christianized  society,  as  in  Augustin's  City  of  God.  It  is  an 
idea,  the  heavenly  idea  which  is  realized  in  Christian  lives  on 
earth,  and  therefore  thought  of  as  their  source,  allegorically  as 
their  mother. 

free.    This  is  the  leading  conception  of  the  allegory,  Christian 
freedom  contrasted  with  Jewish  bondage. 

27.  Quoted  from  Isa.  liv.  1.  The  context  shews  that  the 
prophet  was  referring  to  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  over- 
whelming calamities.  Israel  is  pictured  as  a  forsaken  wife  who  is 
to  be  restored  and  comforted.  But  the  language  has  a  manifest 
reference  to  the  story  of  Sarah,  who  indeed  is  mentioned  earlier 
(Isa.  li.  2) ;  and  the  Rabbis  were  accustomed  to  associate  these  two 
passages.  Paul  would  now  compare  this  joy  of  Sarah  at  having 
a  child  and  descendants  with  the  gladness  of  Christian  privileges. 
Thus  Christians  =  restored  Israel  =  Sarah  when  blessed  with 
a  child. 

28.  we.  Another  reading  is  '  ye,'  and  the  authorities  are  about 
equally  divided  between  them.  With  the  reading  'we'  in  our 
text  Paul  cannot  now  mean  only  himself  and  other  Jewish 
Christians,  as  in  earlier  passages  (cf.  iii.  24,  iv.  3,  5).  He  must 
be  including  his  readers,  since  he  addresses  them  as  brethren  in 
a  tone  that  implies  that  they  share  the  privileges  of  God's  children. 
The  transition  has  come  gradually  and  easily.  When  Paul  thought 
of  Jews  becoming  Christians  by  faith,  just  as  Gentiles  became 
Christians  by  faith,  he  recognized  that  there  was  no  distinction 


318  TO  THE  GALATIANS  4.  29-31 

29  But  as  then  he  that  was  born  after  the  flesh  persecuted 
him  that  was  bom  after  the  Spirit,  even  so  it  is  now. 

30  Howbeit  what  saith  the  scripture  ?   Cast  out  the  handmaid 
and  her  son :    for  the  son  of  the  handmaid  shall  not 

31  inherit   with   the   son   of  the   free  woman.      Wherefore, 

between  them  (cf.  iii.  28).     Christians,  whether  Jewish  or  Gentile, 
are  the  true  children  of  Sarah. 

children  of  promise,  i.  e.  born  as  children  in  consequence  of 
a  Divine  promise  in  contrast  with  those  born  merely  in  the  course 
of  nature  (cf.  verse  23).  Such  was  Isaac,  and  such  are  Christians, 
who  inherit  God's  promise  to  Abraham. 

29.  he  .  .  .  after  the  flesh.  Ishmael,  but  now  with  a  distinct 
reference  to  the  actual  words  used,  so  as  to  introduce  the  idea  of 
the  carnality  of  the  Jewish  law  in  an  allegorical  use  of  the  example 
of  Hagar's  child. 

persecuted :  a  reference  to  the  incident  in  Gen.  xxi.  9, 
where  the  Hebrew  only  means  'laughing';  but  the  Septuagint 
gives  a  longer  phrase,  probably  corresponding  to  the  original 
Hebrew — 'playing  with  her  son.'  This  incident  was  made 
much  of  in  later  Jewish  writings.  Since  it  is  connected  with 
a  feast  in  honour  of  Sarah  in  the  original  narrative  some  mockery 
seems  to  be  intended.  Possibly  Paul  was  also  thinking  of  the 
later  historical  relations  between  the  descendants  of  the  two 
mothers  (cf.  Ps.  lxxxiii.  6,  where  the  Ishmaelites  appear  in 
a  confederacy  of  the  enemies  of  Israel'. 

him  .  .  .  after  the  Spirit.  A  variation  of  the  phrases 
'through  promise'  (verse  23)  and  'of  promise'  (verse  38),  the 
promise  being  attributed  to  the  Spirit  of  God.  No  doubt  the 
change  of  language  is  made  in  order  to  get  the  contrast  between 
flesh  and  spirit,  and  so  that  between  the  external  character  of 
Judaism  and  the  spiritual  character  of  Christianity. 

30.  Quoted  from  Gen.  xxi.  10,  but  with  an  alteration  towards 
the  end,  where  Paul  has  'the  son  of  the  freewoman'  in  place 
of  'my  son,  even  with  Isaac.'  Thus  Paul  brings  the  passage 
round  more  directly  to  the  line  of  his  argument.  He  must  have 
felt  the  desirability  of  changing  its  form,  because  in  Genesis  it 
appears  as  a  saying  of  Sarah,  while  Paul  has  introduced  it  simply 
as  a  Scripture  utterance. 

31.  Wherefore:  the  conclusion  brought  home  to  Christians. 
It  must  be  evident  to  every  reader,  however,  that  this  can  only 
be  admitted  when  the  points  of  comparison  in  the  allegory  have 
already  been  assumed.  This  allegory  of  Hagar  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  a  logical  argument.  By  a  little  manipulation  it  would 
be  easy  to  construct  one  with  a  very  different  leSson.      Philo 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   4.  31-0.  i  319 

brethren,  we  are  not  children  of  a   handmaid,  but  of 
the  freewoman.     With  freedom  did  Christ  set  us  free :  5 
stand   fast   therefore,   and    be   not   entangled   again   in 
a  yoke  of  bondage. 

allegorizes  the  same  story,  taking  Abraham  as  the  human  soul, 
Sarah  as  Divine  wisdom,  and  Hagar  as  secular  learning.  But 
as  an  illustration  Paul's  allegory  vividly  sets  forth  the  truth  he 
is  teaching.  Of  this  passage,  as  of  much  else  in  the  Apostle's 
writings,  wc  must  say  that  the  conclusions  are  true,  but  the 
arguments  Rabbinical. 

a  handmaid :  better  than  '  the  handmaid '  as  in  the  A.  V. 
There  is  no  article  in  the  Greek,  and  the  idea  is  indefinite.  As 
Christians  our  origin  is  not  in  bondage. 

the  freewoman:  i Jerusalem  that  is  above,'  described  as 
c  our  mother.'     See  note  on  verse  26. 

v.  1.  With  freedom,  &c.  This  reading  must  certainly  be  pre- 
ferred to  that  of  the  A.  V.,  '  Stand  fast  therefore  in  the  liberty,' 
which  has  the  great  weight  of  MS.  authority  against  it.  But  Light- 
foot  prefers  a  reading  which  introduces  a  relative  pronoun,  and 
connecting  the  sentence  with  the  previous  verse  runs  thus, 
•  Sons  of  the  free  by  virtue  of  the  freedom  which  Christ  has 
given  us,'  or  preferably,  'of  her  who  is  free  with  that  freedom 
which  Christ,'  &c.  But  there  is  little  MS.  authority  for  this 
reading,  and  most  of  the  textual  critics  reject  it.  Accepting  the 
reading  of  the  R.  V.  we  must  still  connect  this  verse  with  its 
predecessors  rather  than  with  what  follows.  It  gives  us  the 
practical  conclusion  of  the  allegory. 

Christ  set  us  free.  In  iii.  13  Paul  had  written  of  Christ 
liberating  Jews  from  the  curse  of  the  law  (cf.  iv.  5  .  But  now 
the  pronoun  '  we '  includes  Gentiles.  He  had  written  of  both 
as  being  in  bondage  to  'the  elements' — Jews  in  iv.  3,  and  Gentiles 
in  iv.  9.  This  applied  to  Jewish  ordinances  and  Gentile  super- 
stitions.    Christ  bought  freedom  from  both. 

standfast:  in  spite  of  temptations  to  swerve,  such  as  came 
from  the  Judaizing  influences  in  Galatia. 

therefore :  because  there  has  been  a  great  act  of  liberation 
at  a  heavy  cost,  as  the  previous  arguments  have  shewn  (cf.  iii.  13. 
It  would  be  unreasonable  to  go  back  from  this,  flinging  away  all 
its  advantages. 

again.  Paul  persists  in  his  identification  of  Judaism  with 
heathenism.  The  Galatians  who  were  adopting  the  Jewish  law 
had  never  been  under  it  before  ;  but  Paul  regards  it  as  equivalent 
to  their  old  superstitions.  Therefore  in  taking  it  up  they  are 
really  entangling  themselves  a  second  time  with  a  yoke  of  bondage. 


32o  TO  THE  GALATIANS  5.  2-4 

2  Behold,    I    Paul   say   unto  you,   that,    if  ye   receive 

3  circumcision,   Christ  will   profit   you   nothing.      Yea,   I 
testify  again  to  every  man  that  receiveth  circumcision, 

4  that  he  is  a  debtor  to  do  the  whole  law.     Ye  are  severed 

a  yoke:  not  'the  yoke'  as  in  the  A.  V.  The  Jewish  law  is 
not  actually  the  same  thing  as  the  pagan  superstitions,  though  the 
consequent  bondage  is  the  same  in  both  cases. 

III.   Practical  Expostulation,     v.  2— vi.  18. 

v.  2-12.  The  Hanger  of  Jndaizing.  The  Apostle  warns  his 
readers  that  in  being  circumcised  they  will  come  under  an  obliga- 
tion to  keep  the  whole  of  the  Jewish  law.  Then  in  seeking 
justification  by  means  of  law  they  stultify  their  relations  with 
Christ,  for  we  look  for  our  righteousness  by  faith  in  him  with 
whom  this  Jewish  ritual  counts  for  nothing.  How  was  it  that 
the  Galatians  who  were  making  progress  have  come  to  be  thu:s 
hindered?  A  mischievous  leaven  must  be  spreading  through 
them ;  the  person  who  has  introduced  it  has  incurred  a  heavy 
responsibility.  Paul  trusts  that  the  Galatians  will  resist  this 
influence.  He  reminds  them  that  his  own  course  would  have 
been  easy  enough  if  only  he  had  fallen  in  with  the  policy  of 
the  Judaizers. 

2.  Behold,  I  Paul:  very  emphatic.  The  Apostle  is  addressing 
the  Galatians  with  all  the  weight  of  his  authority  as  their  founder 
and  inspired  director.  At  the  same  time  he  seems  to  be  refuting 
the  calumny  of  those  who  claim  his  example  in  favour  of  the 
Judaizing  notions  (cf.  verse  n). 

if  ye  receive,  &c.  This  implies  that  the  Galatians  had  not 
yet  actually  undergone  the  rite  of  circumcision,  though  they  were 
inclined  to  believe  in  its  efficacy. 

Christ  will  profit  you  nothing-.  They  cannot  add  legalism 
to  Christianity  as  a  sort  of  counsel  of  perfection.  In  accepting 
the  former  they  renounce  the  latter. 

3.  testify:  not  '  bear  witness/  but  i  solemnly  assert  as  in  the 
presence  of  witnesses.' 

again.  Paul  had  not  said  this  in  any  earlier  part  of  the 
Epistle.  He  must  be  alluding  to  what  he  had  declared  to  the 
Galatians  during  his  second  visit  to  them. 

receiveth  circumcision.  The  form  of  the  Greek  word 
implies  a  voluntary  act  on  their  part. 

a  debtor  to  do  the  whole  law.  Possibly  the  Galatians 
imagined  that  as  Christians  they  might  accept  Judaism  in  a  general 
way  without  being  bound  by  all  the  rigour  of  its  legal  system. 
This  dilettante  method  is  impossible.     There  is  no  middle  course. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS,   5.  5,6  321 

from  Christ,  ye  who  would  be  justified  by  the  law;  ye 
are  fallen  away  from  grace.     For  we  through  the  Spirit  5 
by  faith  wait  for  the  hope  of  righteousness.      For  in  6 

4.  severed  :  lit.  '  brought  to  nought.'  Applied  to  a  person  the 
word  means  the  cessation  of  all  connexion.  In  Rom.  ii.  2  and  6 
Paul  uses  it  of  the  wife  who  is  '  discharged  from  the  law  of  the 
husband'  by  his  death,  and  so  of  Christians  who  are  ' discharged 
from  the  law.'  The  idea  is  that  a  voluntary  submission  to  the 
obligation  of  the  law  ipso  facto  nullifies  any  connexion  with 
Christ. 

justified  by  the  law.  Paul  here  introduces  the  aim  and 
purpose  of  this  singular  perversion  of  the  Galatians.  They  were 
seeking  justification,  and  supposing  that  they  could  obtain  it 
by  means  of  law.  That  is  why  they  thought  it  would  be  well 
to  undergo  circumcision. 

fallen  away  from  grace :  i.  e.  from  the  special  grace  of 
justification  on  condition  of  faith.  The  acceptance  of  another 
condition  of  justification  implies  the  abandonment  of  the  Christian 
method.  Lightfoot  understands  the  expression  '  fallen  away '  to 
correspond  to  the  casting  out  of  Hagar  in  the  allegory.  But 
though  the  classic  usage  of  the  word  would  allow  of  this,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  he  has  that  illustration  still  in  mind. 

5.  we :  Christians,  those  who  are  living  in  the  grace  of 
Christ. 

through  the  Spirit:  or  '  in  spirit ' ;  there  is  no  preposition 
or  article  in  the  Greek,  but  merely  the  dative  of  the  word  for 
spirit  (pneumati).  By  using  a  capital  '  S,'  which  was  not  in  the 
A.  V.,  the  Revisers  indicate  that  the  Spirit  of  God,  not  our  own 
spirit,  is  intended.  Elsewhere,  however,  they  use  a  small  's,' 
indicating  the  human  spirit,  where  the  expression  is  very  similar 
(cf.  Rom.  viii.  13).  Lipsius  understands  the  word  to  mean  'the 
Divine  life-principle  in  believers.'  Here,  if  Paul  still  has  the 
allegory  of  Hagar  in  mind,  the  expression  might  be  due  to  a  com- 
parison with  Isaac  as  the  son  '  born  after  the  Spirit '  (iv.  29), 
in  which  case  only  the  Spirit  of  God  could  be  intended  ;  but 
as  that  is  doubtful  it  is  perhaps  best  to  understand  the  word 
in  a  sense  very  common  with  Paul,  as  meaning  the  human  spirit 
when  under  the  influence  of  the  Divine  Spirit. 

by  faith.  The  order  of  the  words  requires  the  reading  of  the 
R.  V.,  which  connects  this  expression  with  the  verb '  wait,'  and  not 
with  the  word  '  righteousness  '  as  in  the  A.  V.  Paul  is  not  here 
thinking  of  justification  by  faith,  but  of  the  patience  to  wait  which 
is  made  possible  by  faith  on  the  part  of  those  who  live  the 
spiritual  life. 

the  hope  of  righteousness.  This  cannot  mean  the  hope 
P)  Y 


322  TO  THE  GALATIANS  5.  7,  8 

Christ  Jesus  neither  circumcision  availeth  anything,  nor 

7  uncircumcision ;    but  faith  working  through   love.     Ye 
were  running  well ;  who  did  hinder  you  that  ye  should 

8  not  obey  the  truth  ?     This  persuasion  came  not  of  him 


of  receiving  righteousness  in  the  future,  because  (1)  the  expression 
'  waiting  for '  implies  that  the  word  '  hope '  itself  represents 
something  future,  and  therefore  must  mean  '  the  thing  hoped  for ' 
(cf.  Col.  i.  5  ;  Heb.  vi.  18)  ;  and  (2),  in  Paul's  own  peculiar  sense 
of  the  word,  '  righteousness '  is  a  present  possession  of  Christians 
reckoned  to  them  as  soon  as  they  are  justified,  not  a  future  at- 
tainment only  to  be  hoped  for,  not  enjoyed  as  yet.  Accordingly 
it  must  mean  the  future  good  we  are  hoping  for  which  is  associated 
with  righteousness  as  its  source  and  condition,  i.  e.  the  great 
Christian  hope  of  eternal  life. 

6.  Por:  confirming  the  previous  sentence.  Our  expectation 
is  based  on  our  spiritual  relations  and  our  faith,  not  on  deeds  of 
the  law,  because  with  Christ  the  external  ordinances  count  for 
nothing. 

in :  in  communion  with  Christ,  in  living  union  with  Christ, 
and  in  all  our  spiritual  relations  with  Christ. 

neither  circumcision  .  .  .  nor  uncircumcision.  The  two 
are  put  together  as  equally  useless.  Circumcision  will  do  no  more 
good  than  uncircumcision,  which,  as  all  allow,  can  have  no 
religious  efficacy.  The  only  thing  which  will  avail  in  us,  whether 
we  be  Jews  or  Gentiles,  is  faith  shewing  itself  active  in  love. 

working*  through  love.  The  Revisers  suggest  in  their  margin 
'wrought'  as  an  alternative  for  'working' ;  but  Paul  never  uses 
the  word  in  a  passive  sense,  nor  does  he  teach  that  Christian 
faith  has  to  be  produced  by  a  previous  experience  of  Christian 
love.  The  idea  is  that  faith  when  in  action  manifests  itself  in  love. 
Faith  finds  scope  for  activity  in  the  region  of  love. 

7.  running  well:  a  reference  to  the  Greek  athletics  of  the 
stadium  (cf.  ii.  2  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  26 ;  Phil.  iii.  14).  Paul  is  thinking 
of  the  earlier  course  of  the  Galatian  churches.  That  part  of  their 
race  was  excellently  run. 

who  :  in  the  singular,  as  though  some  one  person  were  at  the 
bottom  of  this  mischief  ;  we  have  another  reference  to  this  person 
in  verse  10.  But  though  one  takes  the  lead  others  are  associated 
with  him  (cf.  verse  10).  No  name  is  given,  and  we  have  no  means 
of  identifying  the  offender. 

hinder :  a  word  used  for  breaking  up  a  road  to  impede 
the  advance  of  an  army,  but  here  evidently  meaning  simply 
impeding  the  course  of  a  runner  in  a  race. 

not  ohey  the  truth.    Paul  takes  for  granted  that  the  Galatians 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  5.  9-11  323 

that  calleth  you.     A  little  leaven  leaveneth  the  whole  9 
lump.     I  have  confidence  to  you-ward  in  the  Lord,  that  10 
ye  will  be  none  otherwise  minded  :  but  he  that  troubleth 
you  shall  bear  his  judgement,  whosoever  he  be.     But  11 

know  his  gospel  to  be  true.  Therefore  in  not  living  according  to 
its  teaching  they  are  not  simply  perverted  in  mind  and  thought, 
they  are  acting  disobediently.  Truth  is  regarded  as  a  sovereign 
whose  commands  cannot  be  lightly  neglected. 

8.  This  persuasion :  your  being  persuaded  so  to  act. 

him  that  calleth  you :  God.  The  present,  as  Lightfoot 
justly  remarks,  is  used  because  *  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  person 
rather  than  the  act'  (cf.  i  Thess.  v.  24). 

9.  A  proverb,  also  quoted  in  1  Cor.  v.  6.  Lightfoot  understands 
the  image  to  be  applied  to  persons,  the  idea  being  l  a  small  and 
compact  body  disturbing  the  peace  of  the  church.'  Lipsius 
considers  the  illustration  of  spreading  leaven  to  be  more  suitable 
to  the  doctrine  taught  by  these  people.  But  the  context  is  con- 
cerned with  men,  not  with  ideas.  Paul  has  just  referred  to 
some  hinderer,  and  he  will  proceed  to  speak  of  a  troubler.  It  is 
reasonable  therefore  to  think  him  to  have  a  personal  reference  here 
also.  The  illustration  of  leaven  is  always  used  in  the  N.  T.  in 
an  evil  sense  both  by  Christ  (cf.  Matt.  xvi.  6)  and  by  Paul  (cf. 
1  Cor.  v.  7,  8),  with  the  solitary  exception  of  the  Parable  of  the 
Kingdom  spreading  like  leaven  (Matt.  xiii.  33).  The  thought  is 
of  the  gradual,  silent,  insidious,  but  thorough  spread  of  an  evil 
influence.  The  persons  who  exercise  such  an  influence  should  never 
have  been  admitted  to  the  church,  and  being  in,  should  be  removed. 

10.  I:  emphatic  here,  in  the  Greek,  as  in  verses  2  and  n. 
The  Judaizers  hope  to  win  the  Galatians  to  their  practices  ;  but 
on  the  other  hand  Paul,  for  his  part,  cannot  but  believe  in  their 
ultimate  return  to  wiser  ways. 

to  you-ward:  a  late  Greek  usage  of  the  preposition  cts, 
meaning  'with  reference  to.' 

in  the  Lord :  a  peculiar  Pauline  or  contemporary  Christian 
phrase,  meaning  the  association  with  Jesus  Christ  in  life  and 
thought  which  his  people  enjoy.  It  is  because  both  Paul  and  his 
readers  are  thus  living  that  he  has  hope  for  them. 

none  otherwise  minded:  than  in  that  old  time  when  'ye 
were  running  well.' 

he  that  troubleth  you :  a  single  individual,  as  in  verse  7,  and 
more  definitely  so  here. 

his  judgement :  the  judgement  that  will  be  passed  on  him 
by  God. 

whosoever  he  be.  Certainly  this  cannot  be  Peter,  as  some  have 
said  ;    nor   is  it  likely  to  be  James,  though  Lipsius  allows  that 


324  TO  THE  GALATIANS   5.  n 

I,  brethren,  if  I  still  preach  circumcision,  why  am  I 
still  persecuted?   then  hath  the  stumblingblock  of  the 

identification  to  be  more  probable ;  seeing  that  Paul  has  mentioned 
both  these  men  earlier,  he  would  use  the  name  again  if  he  had  it 
in  mind.  Still,  the  phrase  indicates  some  important  personage 
in  the  church.  The  Apostle  is  not  overawed  by  his  position. 
Great  as  he  may  be  in  the  estimation  of  his  brethren  he  will  come 
under  the  judgement  of  God. 

11.  I:  once  again  emphatic,  and  now  with  reference  to  his  own 
doings  and  a  possible  misconstruction  of  them. 

still  preach,  circumcision  :  as  he  had  done  before  his  con- 
version. The  action  of  Paul  in  having  Timothy  circumcised  when 
the  Apostle  was  visiting  the  very  churches  to  which  he  was  now 
writing  would  afford  his  opponents  a  fine  excuse  for  claiming  the 
authority  of  his  example.  There  was  a  difference,  since  Timothy 
was  half  a  Jew  by  birth,  while  the  Galatians  were  wholly 
Gentiles  ;  and,  besides,  there  is  no  proof  that  the  circumcision 
of  Timothy  was  for  his  own  advantage  ;  it  seems  to  have  been 
effected  in  order  that  he  might  be  free  to  work  among  Jews. 
Still,  even  with  these  qualifications  it  does  not  look  consistent  with 
Paul's  uncompromising  position  in  our  Epistle.  Accordingly  the 
narrative  in  Acts  has  been  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  unhistoricity 
of  that  work.  But  are  we  sure  that  Paul  was  never  inconsistent' 
In  his  eagerness  to  fit  so  hopeful  a  disciple  as  Timothy  for  evange- 
listic work,  himself  confessedly  ready  to  become  all  things  to  all 
men  if  by  any  means  he  might  win  some,  the  Apostle  might  not 
have  considered  the  bearing  of  his  action  on  the  freedom  of  his 
gospel  from  Judaism.  The  great  controversy  had  not  then  broken 
out.  We  cannot  imagine  Paul  circumcising  Timothy  after  writing 
the  strong  words  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  on  the  subject 
of  circumcision. 

why  .  .  .  persecuted?  Paul's  persecutions  came  from  the 
Jews,  who  were  opposed  especially  to  the  freedom  of  his  gospel 
and  to  his  offer  of  it  to  the  heathen  without  requiring  the  converts 
to  submit  to  Judaism.  If  he  were  preaching  Judaism,  what  reason 
would  there  be  for  such  persecution?  The  fact  that  he  has  to 
endure  it  is  a  proof  that  he  does  not  preach  Judaism. 

stumblingblock  :  better  than  '  offence '  (A.  V.).  The  Greek 
word  means  primarily  '  the  trigger  of  a  trap,'  then  a  '  trap '  or 
'  snare,'  and  so  anything  that  trips  up,  catches,  and  hinders. 

the  cross :  odious  in  the  e}'es  of  all  contemporaries  as 
a  barbarous  mode  of  execution,  introduced  by  the  Romans  from 
the  usage  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  only  inflicted  on  slaves  and 
subject  people.  If  Paul  had  preached  salvation  by  circumcision, 
he  might  have  been  silent  about  the  cross.     But  he  was  preaching 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   5.  12-14  325 

cross  been  done  away.      I  would  that  they  which  un-  12 
settle  you  would  even  cut  themselves  off. 

For  ye,  brethren,  were  called  for  freedom;   only  use  13 
not   your  freedom   for  an   occasion   to   the   flesh,   but 
through    love   be   servants   one   to   another.      For   the  14 

salvation  by  means  of  the  crucifixion  of  Christ.     That  was  what 
chiefly  provoked  the  Jews  to  resist  his  work. 

12.  they.  Paul  passes  to  the  plural.  There  is  one  leader  in 
the  Judaizing  movement;  but  others  are  associated  with  him  in 
troubling  the  church. 

cut  themselves  off :  i.  e.  'sever  themselves  from  connexion 
with  the  church.'  This  meaning  is  adopted  by  Prof.  Ramsay, 
who  vehemently  opposes  the  alternative  in  the  margin  of  the 
R.  V.,  'mutilate  themselves,'  which  is  accepted  by  nearly  all  other 
modern  scholars.  The  latter  meaning  of  the  word  is  the  usual 
sense  in  which  it  is  found  in  classic  literature,  and  the  only  meaning 
in  the  LXX  (Deut.  xxiii.  i).  It  seems  imperative  therefore  to 
understand  it  so  here.  The  horrible  act  referred  to  would  be 
familiar  to  readers  in  Asia  Minor,  as  it  was  practised  by  devotees 
of  Cybele.  Prof.  Ramsay  holds  that  for  Paul  to  speak  of  it  in 
this  connexion  would  be  to  descend  to  the  scurrilous  speech 
that  disgraces  enraged  orientals.  But  he  could  not  have  used 
the  term  seriously  in  its  literal  sense,  or  as  a  mere  insult.  There 
is  an  allusion  to  the  rite  of  circumcision.  In  dismissing  his 
reference  to  the  troublers  he  expresses  the  wish. that,  if  they  are 
urging  that  on  the  Galatians,  it  would  be  as  well  that  they  did 
a  more  serious  thing  to  themselves.  If  salvation  is  to  be  had 
by  the  knife,  the  more  effectual  the  use  of  that  instrument  the 
better ;  the  Cybele  fanatics  are  the  saints  to  imitate !  The 
utterance  is  ironical. 

v.  13-15.  Love  the  fulfilment  of  the  law.  Called  to  freedom 
Christians  should  not  abuse  their  liberty,  but  use  it  in  the  service 
of  love,  which  is  the  fulfilment  of  the  law. 

13.  ye.  The  word  is  emphatic — 'you'  as  distinguished  from 
the  Judaizers. 

called,  &c.  The  very  purpose  of  the  Divine  call  was  to  lead 
out  of  bondage  into  a  state  of  freedom. 

not  .  .  .  for  an  occasion  to  the  flesh:  a  warning  against 
Antinomianism.     The  subject  is  more  fully  discussed  in  Rom.  vi. 

but  through  love,  &c.  This  is  the  use  to  be  made  of  our 
Christian  liberty.     It  gives  scope  for  love,  not  room  for  licence. 

he  servants :  the  verbal  form  of  the  word  for  bondage.  The 
Galatians  were  hankering  after  the  bondage  of  the  law.  Here 
is  a  better  bondage,  and  one  within  the  limits  of  Christian  liberty. 


326  TO  THE  GALATIANS  5.  15-17 

whole  law  is  fulfilled  in  one  word,  even  in  this ;   Thou 

15  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself.  But  if  ye  bite  and 
devour  one  another,  take  heed  that  ye  be  not  consumed 
one  of  another. 

16  But  I  say,  Walk  by  the  Spirit,  and  ye  shall  not  fulfil 

17  the  lust  of  the  flesh.     For  the  flesh  lusteth  against  the 

Let  them  voluntarily  enslave  themselves  to  the  loving  service  one 
of  another. 

14.  the  whole  law.  Paul  had  said  that  circumcision  made 
a  man  a  debtor  to  do  the  whole  law  (verse  3).  Yet  he  could  never 
do  it  in  the  way  of  law.  Now  the  Apostle  teaches  that  if  he 
abandons  the  service  of  the  law  he  will  find  a  better  way  of 
completely  carrying  out  its  requirements. 
fulfilled :  fully  kept  (cf.  Rom.  xiii.  8). 

Thou  shalt  love,  &c.  :  Lev.  xix.  18,  quoted  by  Jesus  as 
the  second  commandment,  following  that  of  love  to  God,  on 
which  '  hangeth  the  whole  law,  and  the  prophets'  (Matt.  xxii.  40). 
Possibly  Paul  derives  this  from  the  teaching  of  Jesus  ;  but,  if  so, 
we  should  expect  to  see  a  reference  to  the  first  commandment. 
Therefore,  though  he  may  have  heard  a  general  report  of  our 
Lord's  words  on  the  subject,  he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  in 
possession  of  an  exact  account  of  them. 

v.  16-26.  The  Spirit  and  the  flesh.  Christians  are  urged  to 
live  under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God  as  a  means  of  escape 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  senses.  There  is  a  conflict  between  the 
two.  A  life  under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  is  free  from  law. 
The  flesh  produces  a  multitude  of  evil  works  against  which  Paul 
warns  his  readers,  for  the  practice  of  them  will  exclude  from  the 
kingdom  of  God.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fruit  of  the  Spirit  is 
seen  in  a  number  of  graces  ;  there  is  no  law  against  them. 
Christians  are  people  who  have  crucified  the  flesh ;  therefore 
they  should  live  as  becomes  their  new  relation  to  the  Spirit 
without  vanity  or  envy. 

16.  Walk:  a  common  Hebraism  indicating  the  course  of  daily  life. 
the   Spirit.     Here  as  elsewhere  the  Revisers  suggest  the 

Holy  Spirit  by  using  a  capital  '  S '  where  the  A.  V.  has  a  small 
's'  indicating  the  human  spirit  (see  note  on  verse  5).  The 
expression  '  by  the  Spirit'  (the  Greek  dative  without  a  preposition) 
points  both  to  the  power  by  means  of  which  the  life  is  to  be 
sustained  and  also  to  its  character. 

ye  shall  not :  future,  not  imperative.  If  the  life  is  maintained 
in  its  relations  to  the  Spirit  of  God,  this  will  of  itself  be  a  safeguard 
against  the  invasion  of  the  lower  desires. 

17.  lusteth:   an  old  English  word  for  'desires.'     It  is  more 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  5.  18-20  327 

Spirit,  and  the  Spirit  against  the  flesh  j   for  these  are 
contrary  the  one  to   the  other;    that  ye  may  not  do 
the  things  that  ye  would.      But  if  ye  are  led   by  the  18 
Spirit,  ye  are  not  under  the  law.     Now  the  works  of  the  19 
flesh  are  manifest,  which  are  these,  fornication,  unclean- 
ness,    lasciviousness,    idolatry,    sorcery,   enmities,    strife,  20 

suitable  for  the  flesh  than  for  the  Spirit ;  yet  in  this  case  it  is 
used  for  both.  Here  is  a  conflict  of  desires,  the  lower  desire 
of  sense  meeting  the  higher  desire  inspired  by  the  Spirit  of  God. 
The  result  is  a  deadlock,  or  rather  that  the  higher  desires  are 
frustrated. 

that:  'in  order  that,'  not  merely  'so  that';  the  word 
indicates  purpose. 

the  thing's  that  ye  would:  implying  that  the  will  sides  with 
the  impulses  of  the  Spirit ;  the  Apostle  is  writing  to  Christians. 
This  conflict  is  differently  viewed  in  Rom.  vii,  where  the  better 
self  conflicts  with  the  lower  self  and  is  reduced  to  despair  in  the 
pre-Christian  stage,  the  next  chapter  shewing  how  victory  is 
attained  through  Christ  by  means  of  a  life  influenced  by  the 
Spirit  of  God. 

18.  are  led:  the  present  tense,  'are  being  led,'  for  the 
continuous  course  of  life. 

the  Spirit:  undoubtedly  the  Divine  Spirit  here,  therefore 
probably  also  elsewhere  throughout  the  passage. 

not  under  the  law :  because  being  led  by  the  Spirit.  '  No 
man  can  serve  two  masters.' 

19.  the  works  of  the  flesh :  the  operations  of  the  lower  nature 
when  this  is  allowed  full  sway  to  rule  the  man  through  his  senses 
and  appetites. 

manifest :  especially  in  the  shameless  empire  of  the  Caesars, 
where  little  or  no  attempt  was  made  to  hide  these  corruptions. 
But  probably  Paul  is  not  merely  referring  to  contemporary 
circumstances.  He  means  that  there  is  no  mistaking  what  this 
self-abandonment  to  the  lower  life  leads  to.  Dr.  Jekyll  cannot 
keep  the  secret  of  Mr.  Hyde.  Meanwhile,  the  present  is  not  an 
academic  discussion ;  it  treats  of  obvious  facts. 

20.  idolatry:  classed  with  these  works  of  the  lower  nature, 
because  essentially  sensuous  in  its  nature  and,  too,  observed  with 
immoral  rites,  especially  in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  Idolatry 
must  be  distinguished  from  paganism.  All  pagans  were  not 
idolaters. 

sorcery:  the  black  art  was  too  commonly  associated  with 
malignity  and  uncleanness.  The  resort  to  wizards  was  expressly 
condemned  in  the  O.  T.  (Isa.  viii.  18).     Sorcery  and  spiritualism 


328  TO  THE  GALATIANS   5.  21,  22 

ar  jealousies,  wraths,  factions,  divisions,  heresies,  envyings, 
drunkenness,  revellings,  and  such  like:  of  the  which 
I  forewarn  you,  even  as  I  did  forewarn  you,  that  they 
which  practise  such  things  shall  not  inherit  the  kingdom 

22  of  God.     But  the  fruit  of  the  Spirit  is  love,  joy,  peace, 

were  very  fashionable  in  the  decadent  civilization  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  Paul  has  already  referred  to  the  Galatians  being  be- 
witched with  the  evil  eye  (iii.  1). 

divisions  :  not  'seditions'  (A.  V.).  There  is  no  reference  to 
politics. 

heresies:  rather,  •  parties.'  The  word  is  used  by  the  orator 
Tertullus  in  speaking  of  '  the  sect  of  the  Nazarenes  '  (Acts  xxiv.  5), 
and  Paul  takes  note  of  it  in  his  reply  as  though  it  were 
inappropriate,  saying, l  the  Way  which  they  call  a  sect '  (verse  14). 
It  is  derived  from  a  word  indicating  choice,  and  it  points  to 
narrow  opinionativeness  resulting  in  petty  exclusiveness.  It  has 
nothing  to  do  with  theological  divergence  from  the  standard  of 
doctrine,  in  the  later  sense  of  the  word. 

21.  forewarn.  An  alternative,  'tell  you  plainly,'  is  in  the 
margin  of  the  R.  V. ;  but  there  is  no  clear  proof  of  that  use  of 
the  word  in  the  N.  T.,  and  here  it  refers  to  the  future — 'not 
inherit.' 

I  did  forewarn  you :  probably  during  Paul's  second  visit  to 
the  Galatian  churches. 

practise :  are  in  the  habit  of  doing. 

the  kingdom  of  God.  An  expression  singularly  rare  in  Paul's 
writings  considering  that  it  was  the  central  topic  of  our  Lord's 
teaching.  Meaning  primarily  both  the  rule  of  God  and  also  the 
realm,  the  sphere  of  that  rule,  it  had  come  to  have  a  specific  sense 
among  the  Jews  as  the  realization  of  the  Messianic  ideal.  Among 
Christians  it  takes  its  form  and  character  from  the  teaching  of 
Jesus  Christ,  who  not  only  realized  the  Messianic  ideal,  but  also 
exalted  it  as  the  conception  of  a  spiritual  kingdom.  Paul  writes  of 
it  as  something  to  come  (cf.  Matt.  vi.  10,  '  Thy  kingdom  come '). 
It  is  a  future  inheritance  (cf.  1  Cor.  vi.  9,  10,  xv.  50).  In 
this  passage  we  have  a  full,  emphatic  pronouncement  against 
Antinomianism. 

22.  the  fruit  of  the  Spirit  contrasted  with  'the  works  of  the 
flesh '  (verse  19).  Those  works  were  of  a  lower  order,  made, 
produced,  but  not  conceived  of  as  the  outgrowth  of  any  true  life. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Spirit  vitalizes,  and  therefore  does  not 
simply  do  works,  but  rather  develops  fruit.  Here  is  the  idea  of 
the  Christian  character  growing  and  ripening. 

love :  named  first,  in  contrast  with  the  impish  mockery  of  it 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   5.  23-25  329 

longsuffering,  kindness,  goodness,  faithfulness,  meekness,  23 
temperance :    against  such  there  is  no  law.     And   they  24 
that  are  of  Christ    Jesus  have  crucified  the  flesh  with 
the  passions  and  the  lusts  thereof. 

If  we  live  by  the  Spirit,  \>y  the  Spirit  let  us  also  walk.  25 

that  stood  first  in  the  black  list ;  and  rightly  first  on  its  own 
account  as  the  fulfilling  of  the  whole  law  (verse  14  ;  cf.  1  Cor.  xiii.). 

joy :  as  distinguished  from  the  pleasures  of  the  life  of  sense. 

peace:  in  all  relations,  with  God,  with  our  fellows,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  enmities,  &c,  in  the  previous  list,  and  in  ourselves 
as  a  state  of  calm.     Joy  and  peace  go  together  in  Rom.  xiv.  17. 

longsuffering:  the  opposite  to  'strife,  jealousies,'  &c.  (cf 
2  Cor.  vi.  6). 

kindness:  more  exactly,  'friendliness  of  disposition.' 

goodness :  active  beneficence. 

faithfulness :  a  better  word  than  '  faith '  (A.  V.).  The  original 
Greek  admits  of  either  meaning.  But  as  moral  excellences,  and 
especially  those  that  concern  our  relations  with  our  fellow  men, 
are  chiefly  enumerated  here  the  idea  of  fidelity  to  a  trust  is  what 
seems  to  be  intended  (cf.  Rom.  iii.  2,  3). 

23.  meekness:'  especially  opposed  to  the  strife,  &c,  of  the 
earlier  list. 

temperance:  self-control,  as  opposed  to  the  outrageous 
licence  of  the  vices  previously  enumerated.  It  fitly  brings  the 
list  of  fruits  of  the  Spirit  to  a  conclusion.  Here  we  see  the 
victory  of  the  Spirit  of  God  over  the  lower  appetites  as  promised 
in  verse  16. 

24.  they  that  are  of  Christ  Jesus.  The  A.  V.  seems  preferable 
here :  '  they  that  are  Christ's '  (though  we  must  add  the  word 
'  Jesus'  on  the  best  MS.  authority),  the  meaning  being,  '  they  who 
belong  to  Christ  Jesus,'  his  people. 

have  crucified  the  flesh.  An  allusion  to  Paul's  mystical 
doctrine  of  union  with  Christ,  according  to  which  his  people  die, 
rise,  and  ascend  with  him  (cf.  Col.  ii.  20,  iii.  1).  The  Christian 
unites  himself  to  Christ  in  the  crucifixion.  As  Christ's  body  died 
nailed  to  the  cross,  so  his  disciples'  tyrannous  appetites  and  passions 
are  killed  by  their  spiritual  union  with  him  (cf.  Rom.  vi.  6;.  The 
past  tense  is  used  to  indicate  one  definite  act,  as  the  crucifixion 
was  one  event  in  the  past.  It  points  to  the  first  surrender  of  the 
converts  to  faith  in  Christ. 

25.  Not  merely  a  justification  of  the  mandate  in  verse  16. 
Another  word  for  walk  is  here  used,  meaning  'to  go  in  a  row,' 
'  keep  to  the  line.'  In  this  way  the  outer  life  should  correspond  to 
the  inner  life. 


33o  TO  THE  GALATIANS  5.  26—6.  2 

26  Let  us  not  be  vainglorious,  provoking  one  another, 
envying  one  another. 

6  Brethren,  even  if  a  man  be  overtaken  in  any  trespass, 
ye  which  are  spiritual,  restore  such  a  one  in  a  spirit  of 
meekness ;  looking  to  thyself,  lest  thou  also  be  tempted. 

2  Bear  ye  one  another's  burdens,  and  so  fulfil  the  law  of 

26.  vainglorious:  thirsting  for  empty  praise.  Cf.  Phil.  ii.  3, 
where  'vainglory'  is  associated  with  'faction'  and  opposed  to 
'lowliness'  and  a  humble  opinion  of  oneself. 

provoking-  one  another:  by  the  self-assertion  and  pre- 
tentiousness just  mentioned.  According  to  Mommsen  urban 
rivalries  were  common  in  Asia  Minor. 

vi.  1-5.  On  burden-bearing.  The  more  spiritual  should  restore 
a  fallen  brother  with  meekness,  bearing  his  burden.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  think  much  of  oneself.  Each  man  has  just  his  own 
work  to  do. 

1.  overtaken:  not  overcome  by  sudden  temptation,  but  suddenly 
surprised  and  discovered.     It  is  tin  any  trespass,'  not  'into.' 

trespass.  The  word  'fault'  (A.  V.)  is  too  weak.  A  real  sin 
is  meant  by  the  Greek  term. 

spiritual:  implying  that  the  sin  came  from  unspirituality. 

restore :  not  simply  bring  him  back  to  a  place  of  honour,  but 
influence  him  personally  so  that  his  character  may  be  rectified. 
The  word  refers  to  the  inner  experience  of  the  fallen  man,  not  to 
his  status  in  society.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  more  spiritual  members 
of  the  church  to  lead  their  brethren  who  have  fallen  into  sin  back 
to  the  better  life,  not  to  treat  the  offence  with  indifference,  but 
also  not  to  regard  the  offender  with  contempt. 

a  spirit  of  meekness :  a  spirit  that  inclines  to  meekness. 
Paul  sees  the  difficulty  of  carrying  out  his  advice  without  the  pride 
of  superiority  which  would  effectually  frustrate  all  attempts  at 
restoring  the  offender  (cf.  1  Cor.  iv.  21). 

thyself:  the  singular  number,  to  make  the  appeal  more  direct 
and  personal. 

2.  Bear  ye.  The  verb  is  in  the  present  tense,  indicating  a  con- 
tinuous habit  of  life.  Let  this  be  your  habit ;  be  continually 
bearing  'one  another's  burdens.' 

one  another's  burdens.  The  word  'one  another'  is  in  the 
most  emphatic  position  in  the  sentence.  Paul  concentrates  atten- 
tion on  it,  no  doubt  to  contrast  these  burdens  of  sympathy  with 
the  useless  burdens  of  Judaism  which  the  Galatians  were  taking 
on  themselves.  The  context  shews  that  by  'burdens'  he  here 
means  especially  things  like  the  trespass  just  referred  to.     The 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  G.  3-6  331 

Christ.     For  if  a  man  thinketh  himself  to  be  something,  3 
when  he  is  nothing,  he  deceiveth  himself.     But  let  each  4 
man  prove  his  own  work,  and  then  shall  he  have  his 
glorying   in   regard   of  himself  alone,  and   not   of  his 
neighbour.     For  each  man  shall  bear  his  own  burden.       5 
But  let  him  that  is  taught  in  the  word  communicate  6 

idea  is,  that,  if  people  are  to  wear  a  yoke,  let  it  not  be  the  useless 
yoke  of  rigorous  religious  practices,  but  the  serviceable  yoke  of 
rescue  work. 

fulfil :  a  stronger  word  than  that  rendered  '  fulfil '  in  v.  14  ; 
meaning  literally  to  *  fill  up,'  like  a  measure  filled  to  the  brim.  He 
who  does  this  particularly  delicate  and  difficult  work  of  restoring 
a  brother  effectually,  most  completely  accomplishes  the  will  of  his 
Master. 

the  law  of  Christ :  the  law  Christ  laid  down,  exhibiting  it 
in  his  own  redeeming  work,  in  contradistinction  from  the  law 
of  Moses,  which  imposed  the  rite  the  Galatians  were  hankering 
after.  Though  Paul  repudiates  the  religion  of  law  he  has  room 
for  law  in  the  religion  of  grace.  Thus  he  speaks  of  'a  law  of 
faith '  (Rom.  iii.  27),  '  the  law  of  the  Spirit  of  life '  (viii.  2), 
and  here  of  '  the  law  of  Christ,'  in  each  case  meaning  some 
authoritative  rule  of  conduct. 

4.  prove :  test  and  try. 

The  meaning  of  the  passage  seems  to  be — Let  not  anybody 
be  puffed  up  with  vainglory,  especially  by  comparing  himself 
with  other  people.  But  let  each  man  examine  his  own  conduct 
and  what  comes  of  it.  Then  if  after  the  self-examination  he 
is  honestly  convinced  that  it  is  not  a  failure  he  may  congratulate 
himself.  Still,  this  is  a  wholly  private  and  personal  matter.  He 
is  not  to  compare  himself  with  his  neighbours  in  order  to  increase 
his  self-complacency ;  much  less  is  he  to  pose  for  his  neighbours 
to  admire  him. 

5.  his  own  burden :  a  different  word  for  •  burdens '  from  that 
in  verse  2,  which  means  a  heavy  weight,  something  distressing 
to  be  borne.  The  word  in  this  verse  is  used  for  a  soldier's  kit, 
and  also  for  anything  to  be  carried,  apart  from  any  idea  of  its 
weight.  Therefore  '  load '  which  the  Revisers  suggest  in  their 
margin  is  more  appropriate.  In  the  one  case,  the  burden  is 
a  defect  of  character ;  in  the  other,  it  is  the  obligation  of  duty. 
The  contradiction  between  the  two  verses  is  only  apparent  and 
verbal.  We  are  to  help  each  other  out  of  evil  waj's  ;  at  the  same 
time  each  man  must  do  his  own  duty. 

vi.  6-10.  On  well-doing.     The  church  teachers  should  receive 


332  TO  THE  GALATIANS   6.  7,  8 

7  unto  him  that  teacheth  in  all   good   things.      Be   not 
deceived ;   God  is  not  mocked :   for  whatsoever  a  man 

8  soweth,  that  shall  he  also  reap.     For  he  that  soweth 

temporal  support.  The  harvest  will  be  according  to  the  sowing. 
Patience  in  working  for  the  harvest  of  well-doing  will  be  rewarded. 
Meanwhile  every  opportunity  should  be  seized  for  doing  good, 
especially  to  our  fellow  Christians. 

6.  the  word:  a  term  used  in  the  early  church  for  the  sum  of 
Christian  truth  as  preached  and  taught. 

communicate.  This  word  is  frequently  used  for  making 
contributions,  but  inasmuch  as  its  original  meaning  involves  the 
idea  of  association,  it  indicates  something  more  than  the  mere 
act  of  giving,  and  excludes  any  patronizing.  The  giver  bestows 
himself  with  his  gift,  the  idea  being  that  he  is  sharing  his  goods 
with  the  recipient. 

him  that  teacheth.  This  Epistle  contains  no  reference  to 
church  officers  as  such.  According  to  Acts  xiv.  23  Paul  and 
Barnabas  had  appointed  elders  in  every  church  on  their  return 
from  their  first  missionary  journey  through  the  district  to  which 
we  now  know  our  Epistle  was  directed.  There  is  no  mention 
of  elders  in  the  Epistle.  Still,  we  cannot  infer  their  non-existence 
from  mere  silence.  Moreover,  this  passage  plainly  implies  that 
there  were  recognized  teachers,  who,  since  they  required  support, 
must  have  been  definitely  set  apart  for  their  work.  Elsewhere 
we  read  of  '  teachers '  as  a  distinct  order  in  the  church  (cf.  1  Cor. 
xii.  28,  29;  Eph.  iv.  n).  But  here  another  word  is  used,  the 
precise  meaning  of  which  is  to  '  catechize.'  Jewish  teaching 
was  catechetical,  and  in  all  probability  early  Christian  teaching 
was  also. 

The  duty  or  custom  of  supporting  the  ministry  is  frequently 
referred  to  by  Paul  (cf.  1  Cor.  ix.  11 ;  2  Cor.  xi.  7  ff. ;  Phil.  iv.  10  ff. ; 
1  Tim.  v.  17,  18). 

7.  mocied:  a  word  meaning  literally  'to  turn  up  the  nose.' 
To  connect  this  verse  with  its  predecessor  we  must  conclude 
that  Paul  suspected  the  Galatians  of  meanness  towards  their 
recognized  instructors,  while  they  were  under  the  spell  of  the 
Judaizing  visitors.  To  pretend  to  be  very  religious  while  refusing 
to  make  the  necessary  pecuniary  sacrifices  is  a  form  of  meanness 
that  cannot  be  practised  in  defiance  of  the  notice  of  God. 

whatsoever  a  man  soweth,  &c.  Lightfoot  calls  this  '  a 
common  proverb ' ;  but  his  instances  from  Plato,  Aristotle,  and 
the  Bible  (Job  iv.  8  ;  2  Cor.  ix.  6)  illustrate  the  principle  rather 
than  the  phrase.  Nothing  could  be  more  natural  than  thus  to 
draw  the  obvious  and  yet  striking  lessons  of  harvest  over  and 
over  again  without  the  aid  of  any  formal  proverb.     But  Cicero 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  G.   9  333 

unto  his  own  flesh  shall  of  the  flesh  reap  corruption  ; 
but  he  that  soweth  unto  the  Spirit  shall  of  the  Spirit 
reap  eternal   life.      And   let  us  not  be  weary  in  well-  9 

comes  close  to  Paul's  words  here,  writing,  '  ut  sementem  feceris, 
ita  metes'  {de  Orat.  ii.  65). 

8.  unto  his  own  flesh  .  .  .  unto  the  Spirit.  The  preposition 
'  unto '  or  *  into  '  shews  that  the  "  flesh  '  and  the  '  Spirit '  are  here 
regarded  as  seed-beds.  In  the  previous  verse  the  character  of 
the  harvest  is  seen  to  be  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  seed. 
Now  the  metaphor  is  changed,  and  the  harvest  depends  on  the 
soil,  as  in  our  Lord's  parable  of  the  Sower  (Mark  iv.  3-9). 

It  is  usual  to  take  this  as  a  contrast  between  a  carnal  and 
a  spiritual  course  of  life.  But  Lipsius  applies  it  to  the  contrast 
between  the  Judaizing  and  the  more  spiritual  Christian  life, 
taking  the  resort  to  circumcision  as  the  one  sowing,  and  the 
life  of  faith  taught  by  Paul  as  the  other.  Against  the  more 
common  view  observe  (1)  the  opening  (verse  6)  and  closing 
(verses  9,  10)  sentences  of  the  paragraph  refer  to  generosity 
of  conduct ;  (2)  the  phrase  •  his  own  flesh '  is  evidently  to  be 
contrasted  with  'the  Spirit,'  the  Revisers  rightly  printing  that 
word  with  a  capital  '  S '  to  signify  the  Spirit  of  God  in  contrast 
with  a  man's  own  flesh,  or  bodily  life.  Therefore  the  contrast 
seems  to  be  between  living  for  self,  and  especially  for  the  lower 
self,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  the  purely  selfish  character, 
and  living  for  God  in  pursuit  of  the  aims  inspired  by  His  Spirit. 

of  the  flesh :  lit.  *  out  of,'  as  the  harvest  is  drawn  out  of 
the  soil. 

corruption:  'blighted  and  putrescent  grain'  (Lightfoot), 
corresponding  to  a  life  perishing  like  a  rotten  thing. 

eternal  life:  lit  the  'life  of  the  ages,'  the  word  (aidm'os) 
rendered  'eternal'  meaning  that  which  belongs  to  the  age,  or 
the  ages.  Thus  it  points  to  a  vast  and  indefinite  future. 
Practically  it  is  used  as  equivalent  to  '  everlasting.'  The  compound 
phrase  '  eternal  life '  is  a  well-known  expression  in  N.  T.  teach- 
ing and  evidently  among  the  early  Christians.  It  is  found  in 
the  Synoptic  records  of  the  teaching  of  Jesus  as  a  blessing  of  the 
future  (cf.  Mark  x.  30) ;  so  it  is  regarded  by  Paul  here  and 
elsewhere  (cf.  Rom.  v.  21).  In  John  it  is  treated  as  a  pre- 
sent possession  (cf.  John  v.  24),  though  the  conception  of  it  as 
something  future  also  appears  in  the  Fourth  Gospel  (cf.  vi.  27). 
As  a  phrase  in  contemporary  Jewish  speech  it  would  mean  the 
resurrection  life,  and  the  enjoyment  of  this  in  contrast  with  the 
doom  of  lingering  in  the  gloom  of  Hades  as  a  dead  soul  without 
a  resurrection.  Carried  over  to  Christian  thought,  it  still  means 
the  life  of  the  resurrection,  even  in  John  the  life  which,  though 


334  TO  THE  GALATIANS  6.  io,  n 

doing :  for  in  due  season  we  shall  reap,  if  we  faint  not. 
10  So  then,  as  we  have  opportunity,  let  us  work  that  which 

is  good  toward  all  men,  and  especially  toward  them  that 

are  of  the  household  of  the  faith. 
3i      See  with  how  large  letters  I  have  written  unto  you 

begun  here,  outlasts  death  and  realizes  itself  fully  after  the 
resurrection.  But  Christianity  deepens  its  meaning,  bringing 
out  the  rich  spiritual  nature  of  the  gift — making  much  of  the 
substantive  as  well  as  the  adjective,  the  life  itself  as  well  as 
the  fact  that  it  is  eternal. 

9.  be  weary :  lose  courage,  flag,  in  the  long  interval  between 
sowing  and  reaping.  There  is  a  play  upon  words  in  the  Greek. 
This  verb  is  founded  on  a  word  meaning  '  evil '  (kakon),  and  so 
it  stands  in  contrast  to  the  word  *  well '  (kalon)  in  '  well-doing.' 

well-doing :  doing  what  is  good  and  morally  beautiful. 
in  due  season:  lit.  'at  its  own  season,'  i.  e.  when  the  grain 
is  ripe  for  harvest. 

10.  opportunity :  the  same  word  that  is  rendered  '  season '  in 
the  previous  verse.  The  harvest  will  come  at  its  own  season  ; 
then  let  us  see  to  it  that  we  seize  the  season  for  sowing  when  that 
is  with  us. 

that  which  is  good.  In  this  expression  (to  agathori),  as  well 
as  in  the  earlier  one,  the  'well'  of  'well-doing'  (to  kalon),  Paul 
uses  language  familiar  to  every  reader  of  Plato,  the  current 
language  of  Greek  ethics.  There  is  a  more  distinctly  moral  tone 
in  the  word  rendered  '  good,'  as  with  that  term  in  our  language  ; 
and  it  is  especially  applied  to  the  goodness  shewn  in  kindness  to 
other  people,  for  being  good  to  them. 

toward  all  men:  the  Christian  duty  of  universal  philan- 
thropy ;  and  yet  the  early  Christians  were  accused  of  misanthropy 
and  hated  as  '  enemies  of  the  human  race ' ! 

the  household :  regarding  Christians  as  all  members  of  one 
family. 

the  faith:  a  misleading  rendering  of  the  R.  V.,  due  to 
pedantic  exactness.  It  is  true  the  article  is  found  in  the  Greek 
text.  But  this  is  possible  before  an  abstract  noun  where  we 
should  not  have  it  in  English  ;  and  the  Apostle  may  mean  '  the 
well-known  experience  of  Christian  faith.'  Still,  the  A.  V.  render- 
ing 'faith'  without  the  article  is  really  more  accurate.  The 
expression  'the  faith,'  meaning  'the  Christian  religion,'  is  not 
found  so  early  as  this.  The  whole  phrase  means  '  the  household 
of  those  who  share  in  the  experience  of  Christian  faith,'  'the 
household  of  believers.' 

vi.   11-18.     Conclusion  written  by  Paul  himself.     Writing  with 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  6.  i2  335 

with  mine  own  hand.      As  many  as  desire  to  make  a  12 

his  own  hand  in  large  letters,  the  Apostle  gives  a  final  warning 
against  the  Judaizing  intruders,  whose  honesty  of  purpose  he  does 
not  believe  in.  He  will  only  glory  in  Christ,  for  neither  circum- 
cision nor  uncircumcision  count  for  anything,  but  only  a  renewed 
life.  He  desires  that  he  may  be  troubled  no  more  with  these 
matters,  and  concludes  with  a  brief  benediction. 

11.  with  how  large  letters:  not  'how  large  a  letter.'  This 
fact  has  been  explained  (i)  as  a  sign  of  Paul's  bad  eyesight.  The 
willingness  of  the  Galatians  to  pluck  out  their  e3Tes  and  give 
them  to  him  (cf.  iv.  15  and  note)  has  been  taken  by  some  as  a  hint 
of  this  trouble,  which  is  then  regarded  as  Paul's  '  infirmity  in  the 
flesh'  (iv.  13),  and  'thorn  in  the  flesh'  (2  Cor.  xii.  7).  (2)  An 
indication  of  his  difficulty  in  writing  owing  to  his  hands  having 
been  roughened  by  the  manual  labour  of  his  craft,  the  tent-making, 
and  to  his  unfamiliarity  with  the  use  of  the  pen.  (3)  A  sign  of 
the  importance  of  what  he  is  going  to  write.  There  is  not 
sufficient  reason  for  his  making  the  statement  on  either  of  the  first 
two  grounds,  except  as  a  casual  remark ;  and  the  gravity  of  what 
he  adds,  with  its  stern  and  almost  angry  tone,  excludes  any  but 
grave  and  serious  reasons  for  what  he  says.  Prof.  Ramsay  points 
out  that  when  a  document  was  to  be  exposed  in  public  '  attention 
was  often  called  to  some  specially  important  point,  especially  at 
the  beginning  or  end,  by  the  use  of  larger  letters.'  Instances  of 
this  may  be  seen  in  advertisements  at  Pompeii. 

I  have  written.  This  is  an  instance  of  what  grammarians 
call  the  '  epistolary  aorist,'  a  Greek  verb  used  in  a  letter  in  the  past 
tense  for  what  will  be  past  when  the  letter  is  read,  although  it  is 
present  while  the  letter  is  being  written,  the  sentence  being  con- 
structed from  the  reader's,  not  the  writer's,  standpoint.  Paul  is 
not  referring  to  the  previous  part  of  the  Epistle  :  he  is  drawing 
attention  to  the  paragraph  which  he  is  in  the  act  of  writing.  It 
would  be  better  to  read  ' write'  with  the  A.  V.  and  the  margin  of 
the  R.  V. 

with  mine  own  hand.  From  this  point,  then,  all  that  follows 
was  written  in  the  original  document  by  the  author  himself.  In 
common  with  many  ancient  authors  Paul  was  in  the  habit  of 
dictating  to  an  amanuensis.  In  Romans  (xvi.  22)  the  amanuensis 
gives  his  name  as  Tertius,  adding  his  own  salutation.  We  cannot 
say  how  many  of  the  Epistles  this  man  may  have  written  out  for 
Paul.  Since  the  Apostle  was  accompanied  by  various  attendant 
evangelists  at  different  times,  probably  the  letters  would  not  all  be 
dictated  to  the  same  person.  The  Apostle  who  obtained  his  liveli- 
hood as  a  mechanic  would  not  be  able  to  keep  a  private  secretary. 
Slaves  did  this  work  in  the  Roman  Empire ;  but  Paul  owned  no 
slave,  we  may  be  sure.     It  was  the  Apostle's  custom  to  authen- 


336  TO  THE  GALATIANS  6.  13 

fair  show  in  the  flesh,  they  compel  you  to  be  circumcised ; 

only  that  they  may  not  be  persecuted  for  the  cross  of 

r3  Christ.      For  not  even  they  who  receive  circumcision 

ticate  his  dictated  letters  with  a  few  words  in  his  own  hand- 
writing. Cf.  2  Thess.  iii.  17,  'The  salutation  of  me  Paul  with 
mine  own  hand,  which  is  the  token  in  every  epistle.'  The  short 
personal  letter  to  Philemon  was  written  by  the  Apostle  entirely 
with  his  own  hand,  but  he  calls  his  friend's  attention  to  the  fact 
as  something  exceptional  (Philem.  19). 

12.  a  fair  show  in  the  flesh:  not  meaning  '  in  the  world  and 
among  men,'  nor  'in  things  observable  by  the  senses,'  but  more 
specifically  'in  ordinances  that  are  bodily  and  external.'  Cf.  'in 
3-our  flesh '  (verse  13).  The  context  shews  that  the  reference  is 
to  the  Judaizers. 

that  they  may  not  be  persecuted.  Persecution  in  these 
primitive  times  came  from  the  Jews,  and  it  was  directed  especially 
against  those  Christians  who  were  of  Jewish  birth.  The  special 
ground  of  the  persecution  was  disloyalty  to  the  law  of  Israel. 
If  Jewish  Christians  shewed  themselves  zealous  in  winning 
proselytes  to  that  law  they  might  hope  to  escape.  Paul  roundly 
declares  that  this  is  their  only  motive.  He  will  not  admit  that 
they  realty  believe  in  the  law  which  they  would  impose  on  the 
Galatians  ;  their  own  carelessness  in  regard  to  it  reveals  their 
personal  indifference  to  it.  Neither  will  he  allow  that  they  have 
the  slightest  genuine  interest  in  the  Galatians  ;  he  holds  that  their 
motive  is  purely  selfish  and  of  the  meanest  possible  kind,  leading 
them  to  impose  irksome  obligations  on  other  people  simply  in  order 
to  gain  a  false  reputation  for  zeal,  so  as  to  escape  being  suspected 
themselves.  Thus  they  appear  in  a  very  odious  light.  One  cannot 
but  hope  that  the  vehemence  of  his  indignation  carried  Paul  too  far 
in  this  wholesale  condemnation  of  his  opponents.  No  letter  of  the 
Judaizers  has  been  preserved  to  represent  their  view  of  the  case. 
Still,  we  may  be  sure  that  Paul  was  perfectly  true  to  his  convictions 
in  uttering  this  severe  judgement,  and  the  next  verse  certainly 
points  in  that  direction  and  goes  some  way  to  verify  it. 

for  the  cross  of  Christ :  for  preaching  the  cross  instead  of 
Jewish  ideas.     Cf.  v.  11  and  note. 

13.  they  who  receive  circumcision:  the  circumcision  party, 
the  Judaizers,  who  indeed  receive  that  rite  themselves,  though 
they  do  not  fulfil  the  obligations  it  imposes. 

not  even  .  .  .  keep  the  law.  This  can  scarcely  mean  that 
the  Judaizers  share  in  the  common  inability  of  all  mankind  to 
perfectly  fulfil  the  requirements  of  the  Pentateuch,  as  Paul  shews 
elsewhere.  The  charge  is  too  specific.  A  distinct  laxity  is  meant. 
The  free  atmosphere  of  the  church  made   it  easy  to  abandon 


TO  THE  GALATIANS  6.   14,  15  337 

do  themselves  keep  the  law ;  but  they  desire  to  have  you 
circumcised,  that  they  may  glory  in  your  flesh.     But  far  14 
be  it  from  me  to  glory,  save  in  the  cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  through  which  the  world  hath  been  crucified  unto 
me,  and  I  unto  the  world.     For  neither  is  circumcision  15 

the  tiresome  rigour  of  Judaism  in  many  matters,  and  these 
Judaizing  Christians  were  availing  themselves  of  this  fact  to 
ease  their  own  burdens.  Thus  their  Judaism  was  more  external 
and  formal  even  than  that  of  the  Pharisees.  It  consisted  in  little 
more  than  submission  to  the  rite  of  circumcision  themselves  and 
pretentious  zeal  in  forcing  that  rite  on  Gentile  Christians. 

that  they  may  glory  :  exult  and  boast. 

in  your  flesh :  in  regard  to  a  rite  that  is  only  performed  on 
your  bodies,  apart  from  your  spiritual  condition,  irrespective 
of  the  question  whether  any  change  in  that  condition,  such  as 
the  becoming  'a  new  creature'  (verse  15)  which  Paul  aims  at  for 
his  converts,  has  taken  place. 

14.  But  far  be  it  from  me,  &c.  The  pronoun  i  me '  is  in  the 
most  emphatic  place  in  the  sentence.  Paul  says  in  effect,  '  What- 
ever may  be  the  grounds  of  exulting  these  people  take  up,  as  to 
myself,  for  my  part,  I  will  not  exult  except,'  &c. 

in  the  cross.  Paul  had  recognized  that  '  the  cross '  was 
a  stumblingblock  to  many  (v.  11),  and  the  preaching  of  it  a 
reason  why  Christians  were  persecuted  (vi.  12).  Yet  he  never 
obscured  it,  but  set  it  in  the  most  prominent  place  in  his  teaching. 
When  going  to  visit  the  clever  people  at  Corinth,  all  he  previously 
determined  was  that  he  would  preach  to  them  about  Christ  in 
regard  to  his  crucifixion  (1  Cor.  ii.  2).  Here,  far  from  apologizing 
for  it,  he  makes  it  his  one  ground  of  exultation.  This  would 
appear  absolutely  paradoxical  in  the  view  of  contemporaries  who 
only  thought  of  the  cross  as  a  cruel,  disgraceful  instrument  of 
execution.  It  is  to  be  explained  by  what  Paul  saw  in  the  cross. 
(1)  On  Christ's  side,  the  centre  of  his  supreme  act  of  love  in 
sacrificing  himself  for  the  redemption  of  the  world ;  (2)  on  the 
Christian's  side,  the  symbol  of  his  crucifixion  to  the  world,  and 
the  influence  by  means  of  which  his  old  evil  life  was  destroyed 
in  order  that  he  might  live  the  new  life  in  Christ. 

the  world  .  .  .  crucified  unto  me :  ceasing  therefore  to  live 
as  a  power  to  fascinate,  terrify,  or  hurt. 

X  unto  the  world :  no  longer  concerning  myself  with  it. 
The  scope  of  this  verse  must  be  determined  by  its  context. 
Paul  is  not  here  repudiating  any  interest  in  politics,  business, 
society,  nature,  art,  or  literature.  He  is  contrasting  his  position 
with  that  of  the  proselytizei  s  who  are  trimming  their  sails 
(»)  Z 


338  TO  THE  CxALATIANS   6.   16 

16  anything,  nor  uncircumcision,  but  a  new  creature.  And 
as  many  as  shall  walk  by  this  rule,  peace  be  upon  them, 
and  mercy,  and  upon  the  Israel  of  God. 

to  catch  the  breeze  of  popular  favour.  He  is  perfectly  indifferent 
to  this.  It  cannot  really  hurt  him — for  the  world  is  crucified 
as  far  as  he  is  concerned  ;  he  will  not  consider  it — for  he  is 
crucified  as  far  as  the  world  is  concerned. 

15.  The  first  part  of  this  verse  resembles  an  earlier  phrase  in 
the  Epistle  (v.  6),  but  with  some  alterations,  (i)  The  former 
passage  begins  with  the  words  '  in  Christ  Jesus,'  indicating  that  for 
Christians  both  the  rite  and  the  absence  of  it  count  for  nothing; 
now  that  clause  is  dropped  and  the  sentence  is  given  absolutely 
as  of  universal  application.  Even  for  those  who  are  not  Christians, 
yes,  even  for  Jews,  when  its  true  nature  is  known,  this  is  seen 
to  be  nothing.  (2)  Paul  had  said  that  it  was  of  no  avail ;  now 
he  says  that  it  is  nothing  at  all,  i.  e.  that  in  all  considerations 
of  religion  it  does  not  find  any  place  ;  as  far  as  they  are  concerned 
it  is  not  anything.  (3)  The  former  contrast  was  with  '  faith 
working  by  love ' — the  Christian  spiritual  experience  ;  now  the 
contrast  is  with  a  new  creature,  indicating  the  most  fundamental 
change,  and  therefore  the  greatest  possible  difference  in  comparison 
with  a  merely  external  rite. 

a  new  creature.  The  phrase  may  mean  (1)  'a  new  creation,' 
i.e.  'a  new  act  of  creation'  (cf.  Rom.  i.  20),  and  in  favour  of  this 
view  is  the  contrast  with  circumcision  as  a  process  and  supposed 
means  of  salvation  ;  or  (2)  'a  new  creature'  as  a  newly  created 
being.  While  the  Greek  word  (ktisis)  admits  of  both  meanings, 
the  latter  is  the  more  usual  in  the  N.  T.  (cf.  Rom.  i.  25,  viii.  39; 
2  Cor.  v.  17  ;  Heb.  iv.  13),  and  especially  suits  the  phrase  'a  new 
creature '  in  2  Cor.  v.  17. 

16.  walk:  lit.  'walk  in  line,'  like  soldiers  in  a  file  or  rank. 
this  rule :  lit.  l  canon, '  a  word  used  for  a  carpenter's  or 
survejror's  measuring  line  ;  here  meaning  the  way  of  the  Christian 
life  by  faith  in  Christ  and  the  power  of  his  cross,  as  just  indicated, 
in  distinction  from  the  way  of  an  external  rite  such  as  circumcision. 
peace  .  .  .  and  mercy.  The  usual  greeting  is  'grace  and 
peace.'  Probably  'peace'  is  named  first  here  because  it  is 
especially  needed  in  view  of  the  troubles  disturbing  the  Galatian 
churches.  Then  '  mercy '  rather  than  '  grace  '  may  be  mentioned, 
(r)  because  these  troubles  call  especially  for  the  Divine  pity  and 
saving  grace,  (2)  because  they  reveal  faults  that  need  forgiveness, 
and  (3)  because  in  distinction  from  the  Jewish  spirit  of  self-made 
righteousness  Paul  has  been  insisting  throughout  on  the  gospel 
of  God's  pity  for  man's  helplessness  received  only  on  condition 
of  faith. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS   6.   17,18  339 

From  henceforth  let  no  man  trouble  me:  for  I  bear  1? 
branded  on  my  body  the  marks  of  Jesus. 

The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  your  18 
spirit,  brethren.     Amen. 

the  Israel  of  God:  neither  (1)  only  Jewish  Christians,  nor 
2)  Israel  as  such,  but  (3)  all  Christians  as  •  the  spiritual  Israel,' 
and  therefore  '  the  true  Israel '  in  contrast  with  those  who  are 
only  Israel  'after  the  flesh'  (1  Cor.  x.  18;  cf.  Rom.  ix.  8).  These 
are  the  '  children  of  promise '  (iv.  28).  This  idea  of  Christians 
as  the  true  Israel  appears  in  1  Pet.  i.  1,  where  they  are  called 
'  sojourners  of  the  Dispersion.'  Appearing  here  at  the  close  of 
the  Epistle,  it  is  a  parting  shot  at  the  Judaizers,  and  a  concluding 
claim  for  Paul's  contention  maintained  throughout  the  argument. 

17.  Prom  henceforth.  Paul  would  dismiss  the  subject.  He 
has  completely  disposed  of  the  contentions  of  his  opponents. 
He  hopes  he  may  hear  no  more  of  them. 

for,  &c.  The  reason  for  this  demand  is  now  to  be  given. 
It  is  to  be  found  in  the  way  in  which  the  Apostle's  status  and 
mission  are  duly  authenticated. 

the  marks  of  Jesus.  It  was  customary  for  slaves  to  be 
cut  or  branded  with  marks  which  would  identify  them  as  their 
master's  property.  Paul  claims  that  he  has  such  marks  proving 
him  to  be  in  the  service  of  Jesus.  The  notion  of  the  'stigmata' 
as  the  nail-prints  in  the  hands  and  feet,  reproduced  in  St.  Francis, 
is  quite  out  of  place  in  the  time  of  Paul.  The  use  of  the  simple 
name  'Jesus,'  according  to  the  best  MS.  authority,  without  the 
titles  'Christ'  or  '  Lord'  which  Paul  nearly  always  applies,  might 
seem  to  point  to  our  Lord  in  his  earthly  life.  But  'Jesus'  was 
the  personal  name.  Paul  seems  to  use  it  here  to  indicate  distinctly 
that  he  is  marked  for  the  one  Person,  Jesus.  The  simplicity  of 
the  phrase  emphasizes  the  idea  that  he  belongs  to  Jesus  and  to 
Jesus  only;  then  let  no  one  else  interfere  with  him.  Deissmann, 
relying  on  the  analogy  of  contemporary  documents,  thinks  that 
Paul  alludes  to  the  '  protective  marks '  of  magical  amulets.  But 
it  is  not  probable  that  the  Apostle  would  compare  his  Christian 
experience  to  the  doings  of  sorcery.  His  marks  would  be  the 
scars  of  persecution  left  by  the  stoning  at  Lystra,  the  lictor's  rods 
at  Philippi,  &c. 

18.  See  note  on  1  Thess.  v.  28.  This  Epistle  closes  as  abruptly 
as  it  is  opened,  with  the  briefest  possible  salutations.  Here  are 
no  personal  greetings.  Paul  will  not  omit  his  usual  benediction, 
and  his  last  word  is  brethren,  for  he  still  owns  the  Galatians  as 
Christians  in  a  brotherly  relation  with  himself,  and  he  wishes  them 
to  receive  the  blessing  of  Christ.  It  is  a  Christian  conclusion,  and 
one  of  well-wishing.     That  is  all. 

Z    2 


INDEX 


[The  Numerals  refer  to  the  Pages  A 


Abraham,  u6ff..  292,  298,  314. 

Achaia,  13,  20,  22.  163,  258. 

Acts,  silence  of,  62. 

Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla,  76,  82. 

Adoption.  66,  308. 

Advent,  Second,  30,  43,  48,  55, 

164,  205.  233,  251. 
Allegory,  314. 
Ambrose,  St.,  16. 
Amphipolis,  6. 
Amyntas,  75. 
Ananias,  264. 
Ancyra,  58,  59. 
Andronicus.  257. 
Angel,  83,  228,  262,  300,  312. 
Antichrist,  37.  244. 
Antioch  in  Pisidia,  59,  73  ff..  77. 
Antioch  in  Syria,  15,  77,  84,  95, 

278. 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  244. 
Antony,  75. 
Apocalypse,  The,  39. 
Apocalypse  of  Enoch,  46. 
Apocalypses,  Jewish,  30.  41. 
Apollonia,  6. 
Apostle,  257. 
Apostles,  267. 
Arabia,  267. 
Archangel,  201. 
Arethusa,  Pass  of,  7. 
Asia  Minor,  interior  of,  64,  102 
Ask  with.  Galatia:s,  72,  note. 
Athens,   19.    21,   23,    174,    177. 

196.  221. 


Attalia,  77,  84. 
Augustin,  317. 
Authorized  Version,  1331!'. 

Balkans,  64,  77. 

Barnabas.  67,   77tT. ,   258,   270. 

271,  276,  281. 
Bartlet,  Prof.,  277. 
Baur  on  1  Thess.,  17,  18. 

—  2  Thess.,  38. 

—  Galatians.  102,  276. 
Bercea,  19. 

i  Bewitch,  289. 

i  Brethren,  false.  273. 

;  Browning,  226. 

1  Burden-bearing,  330. 

I   Caesar,  Decrees  of,  11. 
i    Caligula,  243. 

Calling,  231. 
j    Callistus,  196. 
1    Catacombs.  196. 
I    Catullus,  196. 
{    Celtic  fickleness,  101. 

Cephas,  no,  113,  272,  275. 

Chrysostom,  254. 

Church  officers,  211. 

Churches  of  God.  226. 

Cilicia.  269. 

Circumcision.  275,  322,  324. 

Claudiconium,  75. 

Claudius,  75,   r73_ 

Clement    of    Alexandria    on 
2  Thess..  37. 


INDEX 


341 


Clouds,  20 1 . 

Coin  at  Lystra,  76. 

Coleridge,  214. 

Colossians,  13. 

Conybeare    and    Howson.    78, 

note. 
Corinth,  15,  19,  20,  22,  23.  97. 
Covenant.  297. 
Cross,  337. 
Cybele,  105,  325. 

Damascus,  264,  267,  268. 
Day  of  the  Lord,  204. 
Decrees,  103. 
Demons,  234. 
Derbe,  59,  76,  84. 

Eastern  churches,  22. 

Ebionites,  125,  171. 

Egoism,  26. 

Election,  161. 

Enoch,  Apocalypse  oj\  46. 

Ephesians,  13. 

Ephesus,  15,  96. 

Epistle,  Forged,  235. 

Erastus,  258. 

Eternal,  229. 

Eusebius  on  2  Thess.,  38. 

Famine,  271. 

Fire,  flaming,  228. 

For,  meaning  'on  behalf  of, '209. 

Galatia,  15,  58  ff.,  259. 

—  Visits  to,  86. 

Galatian  churches,  77  ff.,  259. 

—  cities,  73  ff. 

—  perversion,  260. 
Galatians,    Epistle   to,    25,    58, 

258,  289. 

—  compared  with  Romans,  9 iff. 

—  contents,  126  ft". 

—  date,  87  ff. 

—  literary    style    and    charac- 
teristics, 122  ff. 

—  occasion,  97. 


Galatians,  Epistle   to,  place  of 
origin,  95  ff. 

—  purpose,  106  ff. 

—  teaching,  112  ff. 
Galatians,  Who  were  the,  58  ff. 
Garrod.  Mr.,  227,  228,  232,  234, 

238,  247,  249. 
Gaul,  58. 

Gentile  habits,  105. 
Gentiles,  276,  280. 
God  of  Peace,  217. 
Godet  on  1  Thess.,  17. 
Gospel,  Paul's,  109,  272. 
Greeks,  8. 

Grenfell  and  Hunt,  297. 
Gudelissin,  76. 

Hagar,  314. 
Harnack,  dates,  196. 

—  on  1  Thess.,  17. 

Harris,  Dr.  Rendel,on  1  Thess., 

24. 
Heresies,  328. 
Hermes,  83. 

Hilgenfeld  on  2  Thess.,  36. 
Holiness,  185. 
Holtzmann  on  1  Thess.,  17. 
Homer,  195,  200. 
Hope,  196. 
Hort,  Judaistic  Christianity,  277. 

Iconium,  59. 
Ignatius,  211. 
Inheritance,  66. 
Irenaeus  on  1  Thess.,  17. 

—  2  Thess.,  37. 
Isaac,  315. 
Isauria,  59. 
Ishmael,  315. 

James,  no,  269,  272,  275. 
James,  Epistle  of,  4,  in. 
Jason,  n. 

Jerusalem,    15.    104,  267,    268, 
270. 

—  church,  111. 

—  council,  277. 


342      THESSALONIANS  AND  GALATIANS 


Jerusalem  above,  317 
Jewish  Christians,  99. 
Jews,  8.  101. 
John,  no,  272,  275. 
Josephus,  216,  278,  298. 
Judaea,  171,  269. 
Judaism,  50,  103. 
Judaizing    Christians,    18,    118, 
125. 

—  Danger  of,  320. 
Junias,  257. 
Junius,  Letters  of,  4. 
Jus  Italicum,  73. 

Justify,  the  word,  1x4,  283. 
Justin  Martyr,  8. 

—  on  2  Thess.,  37. 

—  on  The  Lord's  Supper,  211. 

Khatyn  Serai,  75. 

Kingdom  of  Heaven,  30,  169. 

Konia,  74. 

Laconia,  70. 

Lactantius,  205. 

Latin,  Old,  1  Thess.,  18. 

Law.  Place  and  function  0^299. 

—  Curse  of,  293. 

—  of  Christ,  331. 
Lawless  one,  240. 
Leaven,  323. 
Lex  talionis.  213. 
Light,  Sons  of,  203,  206. 
Lightfoot   on    Galatians,  58  ff., 

87,  258. 
Literary  style,  Paul's,  47. 
Literature,  129,  130. 
Lord's  brother,  The,  269. 
Love  of  brethren,  192. 
Luther,  121,  283. 
Lycaonia,  59,  75. 
Lycus  Valley,  13. 
Lystra,  59,  75  ff.,  312. 

Macedonia,    5ff.,    15,    19.    163, 

i93>  258. 
Magistrates,  11 


Mahomet,  243. 
Man  of  sin,  42,  50,  243  ff. 
Marcion.  118. 

Marcion's  Canon  on  1  Thess. 
17- 

—  2  Thess.,  37. 
Marks  of  Jesus,  339. 
Massie,  Prcf.,  307. 
Mediator,  300. 
Messiah,  30. 
Milan,  16. 
Milton,  199,  230. 
Minister,  177. 
Miracles,  291. 
Mithra.  309. 
Montanism,  125. 
Mosaic  law,  104. 
Moses,  300. 

Muratorian      Fragment      on 
1  Thess.,  18. 

—  2  Thess.,  37. 
Mysia,  71. 
Mystery,  239. 

Napoleon,  243. 
Nazarenes,  171 
Neapolis,  7. 
Nero,  243. 
Nestle,  193. 

Newman's  Apologia,  100. 
Normans,  16. 

North  Galatia,  Remoteness  of, 
63  ff. 

Objections   to    South   Galatian 

theory,  68  ff. 
Origen,  279. 

Pamphylia,  311. 
Paroitsia,  176,  195,  227,  233. 
Patience  of  Christ,  251. 
Paul,  conversion,  263. 

—  description,  82. 
dispute  with  Peter,  278. 

—  infirmity,  311. 

—  name  and  titles,  157 


INDEX 


343 


Paul,  personal  claim,  io6fl 

defence,  263. 

Perga,  77,  311. 

Pessinus,  58. 

Pfieiderer  on  1  Thess.,  17. 

Philippi,  6,  7,  10,  15,  165. 

Philo,  218,  315. 

Phrygia,  59,  71. 

Phrygians,  65,  105. 

Pisidia,  59. 

Plato,  200,  213,  217. 

Politarch,  11. 

Polycarp  on  2  Thess.,  36,  37. 

Prophesy ings,  216. 

Proselytes,  8. 

Pythoness,  10. 

Ramsay,  Prof.,  12. 

—  on  Galatia,  59  ff.,  88. 
Region,  Phrygian  and  Galatian, 

70. 
Renan,  309. 

Restraineth,  He  that,  238. 
Revelation,  227,  264,  272. 

—  Book  of,  43. 
Righteousness,  288,  301. 
Roman  government,  244. 
Rudiments  of  the  world,  306. 
Ruskin,  122. 

Saints,  186,  230. 

Saloniki,  5,  16. 

Salutations,  Opening,  223 

Samothrace,  7. 

Saracens,  16. 

Satan,  19,  24,  174,  179,  241,  250. 

Schmidt  on  2  Thess.,  38 

Seleucus  Nicanor,  73. 

Shakespeare,  199,  230,  239,  283, 

299. 
Sibylline  Oracle,  205. 
Silas,  7,  19,  20,  157. 
Silvanus,  21,  54,  157.  225. 
Sinai,  316. 
Sonship,  305. 
Sophocles,  195. 


Sorcery,  327. 

South  Galatians,  65  ff. 

Steck,  102. 

Sterrett,  Prof.,  on  Derbe.  76. 

Sultan-Dagh,  74. 

Syria,  269. 

Syriac,  1  Thess.,  18. 

Tavium,  58. 

Teachers,  352. 

Tertullian  on  1  Thess.,  18. 

—  on  2  Thess.,  37. 

—  thorn  in  flesh,  311. 
Testament,  67. 
Testament  of  Solomon,  307 
Theocritus,  196. 
Theodosius,  16. 
Thessalonians,  I,  133  ff,  157  ff. 

—  characteristics   and    leading 
ideas,  26  ff. 

—  contents,  33  ff. 

—  genuineness,  1 7  ff. 

—  occasion,  place,  and  date  of 
origin,  21  ff. 

—  relation  to  2  Thess.,  39 ff. 
Thessalonians,  II,  32,  222. 

—  characteristics,  54. 

—  contents,  56,  57. 

—  date  and  place  of  origin,  53 

—  genuineness,  36  ff. 

—  objects  of  the  Epistle,  48. 
Thessalonica,  4  ff. 

—  Church  at,  12  ff.,  158. 

—  Mission  at,  165. 
Thief  in  the  night,  40,  204. 
Thrace,  6. 

Times  and  Seasons,  203. 
Timothy,  7,  16,  19,  20,  21,  24, 

25,    54-   158,    180,    225,  258.. 

324- 
Timothy's  mission,  176. 
Titus,  15,  258,  271,  273. 
Token,  Paul's,  256. 
Traditions,  247,  265. 
Trench,  Synonyms,  203. 
Trophimus,  259. 
Trump  of  God.  201. 


344     THESSALONIANS  AND  GALATIANS 


Turks,  16. 

Turner,  Mr.,  271,  279. 

Twelve  Apostles,  Teaching  of, 

257. 
Tychicus,  259. 

Vessel,  189. 
Via  Egnatia,  7. 

Wills,  Greek  and  Roman,  67. 
Women,  Chief,  9. 


Word  of  the  Lord.  163,  i98 
Work  with  hands,  168,  194,33. 


Xenop] 


ion.  200. 


Zahn  on  1  Thess  ,  \q. 
Zeus,  83. 
ZOckler,  Dr.,  96. 
Zoska,  76. 


OXFORD:   HORACE    HART 
PRINTER   TO  THF.    UNIVERSITY 


* 

I  Qyernight  Date  Duc   Overnight 


